Biogeography and Ecology in New Zealand

707 Pages·1975·23.335 MB·English

by  C. A. Fleming (auth.), G. Kuschel (eds.)

BIOGEOGRAPHY AND ECOLOGY IN NEW ZEALAND
MONOGRAPHIAE BIOLOGICAE
Editor
J.
ILLIES
Schlitz
VOLUME 27
DR. W. JUNK b.v. PUBLISHERS THE HAGUE 1975
BIOGEOGRAPHY AND ECOLOGY
IN NEW ZEALAND
Edited by
G. KUSCHEL
Auckland
DR. W. JUNK h.v. PUBLISHERS THE HAGUE 1975
ISBN -13 :978-94-010-1943-9 e-ISBN -13 :978-94-010-1941-5
DOl: 10.1007/978-94-010-1941-5
© 1975 by Dr. W. Junk b.v., Publishers, The Hague
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1975
Cover Design: Max Velthuijs, The Hague
Zuid-Nederlandsche Drukkerij N.V., 's-Hertogenbosch
CONTENTS
Authors' Addresses VI
Chapters' Contents VII
Introduction . XV
I. The Geological History of New Zealand and its Biota 1
II. The Climate 87
III. The Distribution and Properties of Soils, and their Biota 139
IV. Flora and Vegetation 177
V. The Amphibians, Reptiles, Birds and Mammals 231
VI. The Freshwater Fishes 277
VII. The Kiwi. 301
VIII. The Tuatara 331
IX. The Marine Benthic Ecology and Biogeography 353
X. The Limnology . 405
XI. The Land Snail Fauna. 459
XII. The Spiders and Harvestmen 493
XIII. The Terrestrial Insects . 507
XIV. The Freshwater Insects 537
XV. The Insects in Relation to Plants. 561
XVI. Adaptation and Change in Maori Culture. 591
XVII. The Influence of Man on the Biota. 643
Genera Index 663
Subject Index 681
AUTHORS' ADDRESSES
P. C. BULL, Ecology Division, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, Lower
Hutt, New Zealand
F. M. CLlMO, National Museum, Wellington, New Zealand
]. D. COULTER, New Zealand Meteorological Service, Wellington, New Zealand
I. G. CROOK, New Zealand Wildlife Service, Department of Internal Affairs, Welling
ton, New Zealand
J. S. DUGDALE, Entomology Division, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research,
Auckland, New Zealand
C. A. FLEMING, New Zealand Geological Survey, Department of Scientific and Indus
trial Research, Lower Hutt, New Zealand
R. R. FORSTER, Otago Museum, Dunedin, New Zealand
E. ]. GODLEY, Botany Division, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research,
Christchurch, New Zealand
R. C. GREEN, Department of Anthropology, University of Auckland, Auckland, New
Zealand
G. A. KNOX, Department of Zoology, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New
Zealand
R. M. McDOWALL, Fisheries Research Division, Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries,
Wellington, New Zealand
I. D. McLELLAN, P.O. Box 95, Westport, New Zealand
B. REID, New Zealand Wildlife Service, Department of Internal Affairs, Wellington,
New Zealand
Q. W. RUSCOE, Soil Bureau, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, Lower
Hutt, New Zealand
]. T. SALMON, Zoology Department, Victoria University, Wellington, New Zealand
V. M. STOUT, Department of Zoology, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New
Zealand
J. C. WATT, Entomology Division, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research,
Auckland, New Zealand
A. H. WHITAKER, Ecology Division, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research,
Lower Hutt, New Zealand
G. R. WILLIAMS, New Zealand Wildlife Service, Department of Internal Affairs,
Wellington, New Zealand
CHAPTERS'CONTENTS
I. The geological history of New Zealand and its biota
by C. A. FLEMING • • . . . . . 1
Bathymetry and structure . . . . 1
New Zealand and Gondwanaland 3
Early Paleozoic . . . . . . 4
The New Zealand geosyncline 5
Permian biogeography . 6
Triassic ........ 7
Lower Jurassic (Liassic) 10
Middle and Upper Jurassic 11
The Rangitata orogeny and the disruption of Gondwana-
land . . . 15
Cretaceous 18
Cenozoic . 25
Paleocene 28
Eocene. . 30
Oligocene 33
Lower Miocene 36
Middle and Upper Miocene . 41
Pliocene . . . . 46
Early Pleistocene ..... 49
Late Pleistocene . . . . . . 52
Conditions during Glacial stages 56
Origin of alpine biota . . . . 58
Interglacial climates . . . . . 64
Post-Glacial (Holocene) history 64
The coming of man . . . . . 68
Biogeographic elements . . . . 69
The fossil records and its defects 72
Attempt at biogeographic synthesis 76
Epilogue . . . . . 77
Acknowledgements . 80
References 80
Postscript. . . . . 86
II. The climate by J. D. CauL TER . 87
The broad-scale atmospheric environment of New Zealand 87
Energy balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Wind circulation and barometric pressure patterns . . . . .. 88
VII
Temperature of the air at sea level. . . . . 89
Temperature in the upper air . . . . . . . 90
Large scale transient features of the circulation. 91
Small scale disturbances, weather distribution . 92
Meteorological situations . . . . . . . . 93
Elements of the surface climate of New Zealand 99
General . . . . . . . . 99
Solar radiation and sunshine 101
Sunshine duration . . . 102
Riflectivity, net radiation 103
Precipitation . . . . . 103
Variability of precipitation 106
Evaporation and evapotranspiration, water balance and agricultural
drought . . . . . . . . . 107
Snow.......... 115
Relative humidity, dew and fog 115
Surface wind . 11 7
Air temperature . . . . . . 119
Frost . . . . . . . . . . 124
Visibility, air pollution, atmospheric chemistry 125
Long term climate fluctuations and trends 127
Mountain and local clirr.ates and microclimates 130
Bioclimatology in New Zealand . . . . 132
Climate and the distribution of plants. . . . 132
Climate and agricultural and forest productivity 133
Aerial transport of organisms. . . . . 134
Fungal disease, animal health and climate 134
Weather catastrophes 135
Conclusion . . . 136
Acknowledgement 136
References . . . 136
III. The distribution and properties of soils, and their
biota by Q. W. RUSCOE . . . . . . . . . . 139
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Distribution and properties of New Zealand soils 140
Brown-gr~y earths . 143
Yellow-gr~ earths ......... 144
Yellow-brown earths . . . . . . . . . 145
Podzolised yellow-brown earths and podzols . 147
Gl~ podzols . . . . . . . . 148
Rendzinas and rendzic intergrades 149
Yellow-brown sands . . 149
Yellow-brown pumice soils 149
Yellow-brown loams . . 150
VIII
Red and brown loams, and brown granular loams and clays. 151
Organic soils 153
Gley soils . . 154
Recent soils 154
Steepland soils. 155
Plants nutrients in New Zealand soils. 156
The changing soil . . 158
Influence of the Maori . . . . . . . . 158
Influence of the European. . . . . . . . 159
Distribution and ecology of the soil biota 163
The microf lora . 163
The microfauna 170
The macrofauna . 17 2
Acknowledgements . 172
References . . . . 17 2
IV. Flora and vegetation by E. J. GODLEY 177
Introduction. . . . . . 177
Relationships of the flora 183
Life forms and leaves . 183
Flowers and fruits 191
Coastal plants 195
The forests . . . 198
General ..... 198
Conifer mixed-hardwood forests 202
Beech forests . . . . . 207
Exotic conifer forests . . 210
Scrub and timberline. 211
The grasslands 213
General . . . . . . 213
Short-tussock grassland 213
Tall-tussock grassland 215
Non-indigenous grasslands 219
Swamps and bogs 219
Alpine vegetation . 220
Adventive plants 222
The outlying islands 222
Acknowledgements . 224
References . . . . 224
V. The amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals by
P. C. BULL & A. H. WHITAKER. 231
Introduction. . 231
The amphibians 232
The reptiles. . 236
IX
Composition oj the reptile jauna . . 236
Endemic reptiles oj special interest . 236
Origin oj the New Zealand lizards 237
Evolutionary trends within the New Zealand region. 239
Distribution and ecology oj New Zealand lizards 244
The birds ........ . 248
Composition oj the avifauna. . . 248
Endemic birds oj special interest . 250
Origins oj the avifauna . . . . 257
Evolutionary trends within the New Zealand region. 261
Distribution and ecology oj New Zealand birds 264
The mammals. . . . . . . . 267
Composition oj the mammal jauna . . . . . 267
Endemic mammals oj special interest . . . . 268
Distribution and ecology oj New Zealand mammals 269
Recent changes in the vertebrate fauna 269
Acknowledgements. 274
Addenda. 274
References 274
VI. The freshwater fishes by R. M. McDow ALL & A. H.
277
WHITAKER ...
Introduction. . . . . 277
Family Geotriidae . . 277
Family Retropinnidae 278
Family Prototroctidae. 280
Family Galaxiidae . . 281
Family Anguillidae 287
Family Pleuronectidae 288
Family Eleotridae . . 288
Family Mugiloididae . 290
Food of the freshwater fishes 291
A zoogeographic synthesis. 292
Ecological zoogeography 292
Historical zoogeograpky 293
References . . . . 297
VII. The kiwi by B. REID & G. R. WILLIAMS 301
Introduction. 301
Discovery. 301
Description . 302
Calls. . . . 303
Classification and the geographical distribution of races 303
Evolution and affinities . . . 307
Ratites and their relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
x