Biofuels for Aviation. Feedstocks, Technology and Implementation

369 Pages·2016·18.715 MB·English

by  Christopher Chuck

BIOFUELS FOR AVIATION
BIOFUELS FOR
AVIATION
Feedstocks, Technology
and Implementation
Editedby
Christopher J. Chuck
DepartmentofChemicalEngineering,UniversityofBath,Bath,UnitedKingdom
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List of Contributors
M.J. Allen Plymouth Marine Laboratory, Prospect J.F. Costello Faculty of Health and Applied
Place,TheHoe,Plymouth,UnitedKingdom Sciences, University of the West of England, Bristol,
M. Anand CSIR (cid:1) Indian Institute of Petroleum, UnitedKingdom
Dehradun,Uttarakhand,India A. de Klerk Department of Chemical and
D.M. Anderson Pacific Northwest National Materials Engineering, University of Alberta,
Edmonton,AB,Canada
Laboratory(PNNL),Richland,WA,UnitedStates
R. Baldassin, Jr. Interdisciplinary Center for G.E. Dorrington School of Engineering, RMIT
University,Melbourne,VIC,Australia
Energy Planning (NIPE), State University of
Campinas(UNICAMP),Campinas,SP,Brazil S.A. Farooqui CSIR(cid:1)Indian Institute of
Petroleum,Dehradun,Uttarakhand,India
A. Bauen E4tech Management Consultancy,
London,UnitedKingdom T.T. Franco Interdisciplinary Center for Energy
Planning (NIPE), State University of Campinas
A. Bergman Department of Biology and Biological
(UNICAMP), Campinas, SP, Brazil; School of
Engineering, Chalmers University of Technology,
Chemical Engineering (FEQ), State University of
Gothenburg, Sweden; Novo Nordisk Foundation
Campinas(UNICAMP),Campinas,SP,Brazil
Center for Biosustainability, Chalmers University of
Technology,Gothenburg,Sweden J.G. Frye Pacific Northwest National Laboratory
(PNNL),Richland,WA,UnitedStates
K.P. Brooks Pacific Northwest National
Laboratory(PNNL),Richland,WA,UnitedStates R. Handler Michigan Technological Institute,
Houghton,MI,UnitedStates
F.Burton LanzaTech,Skokie,IL,UnitedStates
L.Harmon LanzaTech,Skokie,IL,UnitedStates
M.G. Butcher Pacific Northwest National
Laboratory(PNNL),Richland,WA,UnitedStates J.E. Holladay Pacific Northwest National
Laboratory(PNNL),Richland,WA,UnitedStates
L. Canoira Department of Energy & Fuels, ETS
Ingenieros de Minas y Energ´ıa, Universidad L. Hudson Sustainable Aviation Group, London,
Polite´cnicadeMadrid,Madrid,Spain UnitedKingdom
H. Cantarella Agronomic Institute of Campinas A. Jefferson Sustainable Aviation Group, London,
UnitedKingdom
(IAC),Campinas,SP,Brazil
R.S. Capaz Universidade Estadual de Campinas R.W. Jenkins Chemistry Division, Los Alamos
NationalLaboratory,LosAlamos,NM,UnitedStates
(UNICAMP),Campinas,SP,Brazil
C.J. Chuck Department of Chemical Engineering, S.B. Jones Pacific Northwest National Laboratory
UniversityofBath,UnitedKingdom (PNNL),Richland,WA,UnitedStates
L.A.B. Cortez School of Agricultural Engineering M. Lapuerta Grupo de Combustibles y Motores,
ETSIngenieros Industriales,Universidadde Castilla
(FEAGRI), State University of Campinas
LaMancha,CiudadReal,Spain
(UNICAMP),Campinas,SP,Brazil;Interdisciplinary
Center for Energy Planning (NIPE), State C.D. Le Department of Oil Refining and
University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, Petrochemistry, Hanoi University of Mining and
SP,Brazil Geology,Hanoi,Vietnam
xi
xii
LISTOFCONTRIBUTORS
R.L.V. Leal Interdisciplinary Center for Energy A.W. Scha¨fer University CollegeLondon, London,
Planning (NIPE), State University of Campinas UnitedKingdom
(UNICAMP),Campinas,SP,Brazil U. Schuchardt Institute of Chemistry (IQ), State
G.-S.J. Lee Pacific Northwest National Laboratory University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas,
(PNNL),Richland,WA,UnitedStates SP,Brazil
M. McManus Department of Mechanical J.E.A. Seabra Universidade Estadual de Campinas
Engineering,UniversityofBath,UnitedKingdom (UNICAMP),Campinas,SPBrazil
M.A.F.D. Moraes “Luiz de Queiroz” College of D. Shonnard Michigan Technological Institute,
Agriculture (ESALQ), University of Sa˜o Paulo Houghton,MI,UnitedStates
(USP),Piracicaba,SP,Brazil V. Siewers Department of Biology and Biological
A.M.Nassar AGROICONE,Sa˜oPaulo,SP,Brazil Engineering, Chalmers University of Technology,
L. Nattrass E4tech Management Consultancy, Gothenburg, Sweden; Novo Nordisk Foundation
London,UnitedKingdom Center for Biosustainability, Chalmers University of
Technology,Gothenburg,Sweden
F.E.B. Nigro Polytechnic School (EPUSP),
UniversityofSa˜oPaulo(USP),Sa˜oPaulo,SP,Brazil S.Singh JointBioenergyInstitute,Emeryville,CA,
United States; Biomass Science and Conversion
L.A.H. Nogueira Interdisciplinary Center for
Technology Department, Sandia National
Energy Planning (NIPE), State University of
Laboratories,Livermore,CA,UnitedStates
Campinas(UNICAMP),Campinas,SP,Brazil
A.K. Sinha CSIR (cid:1) Indian Institute of Petroleum,
J.Owen LanzaTech,Skokie,IL,UnitedStates
Dehradun,Uttarakhand,India
I.Palou-Rivera LanzaTech,Skokie,IL,UnitedStates
L.J. Snowden-Swan Pacific Northwest National
D. Parmenter Airbus Operations Ltd, Bristol, Laboratory(PNNL),Richland,WA,UnitedStates
UnitedKingdom
A.D. Sutton Chemistry Division, Los Alamos
J. Plaza Kopius Energy Solutions LLC, Seattle, National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM, United
WA,UnitedStates States
J. Ponitka Deutsches Biomasseforschungszentrum D. Thra¨n Department Bioenergy, Helmholtz
gGmbH(cid:1)DBFZ,Leipzig,Germany Center for Environmental Research (cid:1) UFZ, Leipzig,
S. Raikova Centre for Doctoral Training, Centre Germany; Deutsches Biomasseforschungszentrum
for Sustainable Chemical Technologies, Department gGmbH (cid:1) DBFZ, Leipzig, Germany; University of
of Chemical Engineering, University of Bath, Bath, Leizpig,IIRM,Leipzig,Germany
UnitedKingdom V.P. Ting Department of Chemical Engineering,
S.L.Repetto DepartmentofChemicalEngineering, UniversityofBath,Bath,UnitedKingdom
UniversityofBath,Bath,UnitedKingdom J.L. Wagner Centre for Doctoral Training, Centre
D.J. Robichaud National Bioenergy Center, for Sustainable Chemical Technologies, Department
National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, of Chemical Engineering, University of Bath, Bath,
CO,UnitedStates UnitedKingdom
Preface
Theaviationindustryusesapproximately10.8 economists have contributed chapters alongside
exajoules (EJ) of fossil fuel energy every year, industrial stakeholders across the supply chain
produces 700m tonnes of CO , and accounts tosurveythecurrentstate-of-the-artinthisarea.
2eq
for nearly 12% of global transportation emis- Inthefirstsectionanoverviewoftheaviation
sions.Inadditiontoitsdetrimentalenvironmen- sector is provided. In chapter 1, the necessity of
tal impact, fossil-derived jet fuel is increasingly creating suitable biofuels for aviation and the
expensive and subject to market volatility. remaining challenges in delivering a sustainable
These factors are driving the development of solution are discussed. Chapter 2 considers the
renewable fuels for aviation. Recent decades available feedstocks for the production of bio-
have seen accelerated improvements in aircraft fuels, their geographical distribution, and the
design that have produced huge efficiency potential of future biomass sources. Finally,
savings. However, due to current infrastructure chapter 3 discusses the certification and perfor-
and safety requirements and the need for mance of a future aviation biofuel, including
extendedrangeversuspayload,anenergy-dense what an aviation biofuel must look like and
liquid fuel will still be necessary for the foresee- where deviation away from the current interna-
able future. Thus, to reduce the environmental tionalstandardswouldpotentiallybeacceptable.
impact of aviation in the short to medium The major technological routes to an aviation
term the production of an advanced biofuel is biofuel are presented in the second section.
essential. Aviationbiofuelsarenotonehomogeneousmix-
Theaviationsectorisrelativelysmallincom- ture, and there are numerous chemical and bio-
parison with road transport; consequently less logical routes to a range of fuel-like molecules
research and development has been invested that could potentially be used. The diagram
in producing suitable alternatives in this area. overleaf summarizes the major routes presented
Yet the challenges of developing an effective in this section. In chapter 4, the evidence for
fuel are arguably greater: critical aviation fuel using biodiesel as a blending agent in Jet A-1 is
requirements arenot met bytraditionalbiofuels presented, including further data suggesting
such as bioethanol and biodiesel, and a new certain FAME molecules can fit the Jet A-1
approachisneeded. fuel performance criteria if fractionated. In
The aim of this book is to guide readers chapter 5, an alternative lipid conversion tech-
through the latest research and the status of nologyispresented,wherethecatalystsandpro-
industrial development in this complex and duction routes to producing hydroprocessed
important subject, and to consider the future esters and fatty acids (HEFA) are examined.
prospects of aviation biofuels. Leading interna- Chapters 6 and 7 discuss the chemical and
tional scientists, engineers, policy makers, and biological conversion of sugars and small
xiii
xiv
PREFACE
oxygenates. The current status of the promising the section, the suitability of using additives to
alcohol-to-jet (ATJ) route is presented in chapter counteract some of the negative effects of
6, including the organisms currently under using aviationbiofuelsisconsidered.
development to produce the alcohols In the final section we assess the impact of
fromsustainablebiologicalfeedstocks.Thelatest aviationbiofuelsonthewiderworld.Inchapter
research into the production of hydrocarbons 12, we examine the potential environmental
suitable for aviation through solely biological impact of some of the more established routes,
routes, via advanced metabolic engineering, is with an overview of Life Cycle Analysis (LCA)
presentedinchapter7. studiesinthearea.Someofthekeypolicychal-
A further route to aviation fuels is through lenges and opportunities to bring aviation bio-
the thermal conversion of biomass to produce fuels to market are considered in chapter 13.
either crude bio-oils that can be upgraded Finally,chapters14and15describecasestudies
similarly to crude oils in a refinery, or the of bringing an aviation biofuel to market in
production of novel hydrocarbon ranges that Brazil and in the United Kingdom, examining
can be blended with existing jet fuels. In the specific challenges, the infrastructure cur-
chapter 8, we examine the pyrolysis of ligno- rently in place, and considering what a future
cellulose and developing strategies to direct aviationbiofuelsectorcouldlooklike.
the upgrading steps to aviation range hydro- We hope that by giving an overview of the
carbons. While pyrolysis is suitable for dry whole aviation biofuel area, presenting the
lignocellulosic biomass, the direct conversion myriad of challenges and technological solu-
of wet feedstocks—specifically algae—also has tions to delivering a sustainable fuel, this will
merit. The hydrothermal liquefaction of both be a useful reference point for the engineers,
microalgae and macroalgae is explored in scientists, industrialists, and researchers com-
chapter 9. Arguably the most established route mitted to delivering a sustainable future for
to an aviation biofuel is through the gasifica- the aviationsector.
tion and subsequent Fischer(cid:1)Tropsch (F-T)
processing of the syngas. The production of
Dr C.J. Chuck
syngas and its commercial challenges are
presented in chapter 10. In the final chapter in February 2016.
Themajorroutestoaviationbiofuelspresentedinthebook.
C H A P T E R
1
The Prospects for Biofuels in Aviation
A.W. Sch¨afer
University College London, London, United Kingdom
1.1 INTRODUCTION imply a minimal sacrifice in terms of space
and weight for on-board fuel storage, variables
Since the introduction of jet engine aircraft that directly translate into payload capacity
intheearly1950s,worldairtransportationrev- and range. Yet, the search for alternatives has
enue traffic volume has experienced unprece- a long history.
dented growth. The shift to vastly more Several factors motivated the quest for
productive aircraft, in combination with infra- petroleum-derived jet fuel substitutes. One
structure investments, has led to an increase in stimulus was the requirement for higher-
revenue tonne-kilometres from 5 billion in performance aircraft. In the 1950s, liquid
1952 to 650 billion in 2011, an average rate of hydrogen was studied for use in subsonic and
8.9% per year [1,2]. Today, air transportation supersonic military aircraft. Hydrogen’s nearly
accounts for about 10% of the passenger kilo- threefold energy content per unit weight com-
metres travelled by all major motorized pared to jet fuel was projected to translate into
modes, and for around 40% of the interre- longer range and higher flight altitudes [5].
gional transport of goods by value [3,4]. In the Thereafter, oil supply shortages and associated
future, air transportation is expected to price increases during the Oct. 1973 to Mar.
continue to grow in both absolute and relative 1974 Organization of the Petroleum Exporting
terms. Countries (OPEC) oil embargo were the impe-
The historical growth in air transportation tus for large-scale alternative fuel research. In
was entirely fuelled with petroleum-derived the aftermath of the first oil crisis, liquid
jet fuel. Unlike any other sector, air trans- hydrogen, and liquefied natural gas (LNG)
portation heavily depends on this high-energy- were examined as alternative aviation fuels
density fuel. Petroleum-derived jet fuels first at Lockheed in the US [6], then in the for-
contain the largest amount of chemical energy mer Soviet Union (eg, Sosounov [7]), and later
per unit volume of all fuels, and the largest in Germany (eg, Deutsche Airbus [8]). The
amount of chemical energy per unit weight of detailed Lockheed studies estimated that the
all liquid fuels. These desirable characteristics fuel efficiency benefits of liquid hydrogen
BiofuelsforAviation.
DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-804568-8.00001-9 3 ©2016ElsevierInc.Allrightsreserved.
4
1. THEPROSPECTSFORBIOFUELSINAVIATION
would increase with aircraft size and mission reduced in preparation for discontinuation in
length. While cryogenic fuel-based narrow 1996[11].
body, short-distance aircraft would experience Oil-importing countries have also learned to
energy intensities similar to their jet fuel-based deal with the traditional concern of oil price
counterparts, the largest energy intensity volatility. Mainly due to the replacement of oil
reductions (up to one-third) would emerge for in non-transport sectors and efficiency
large, long-distance, hydrogen-fuelled aircraft. improvementsingeneral,theoildependenceof
During this entire period, and for nearly 100 manyeconomieshascontinuouslydeclined.
years,theperennialfearofpeakoil(cid:1)thepoint However, a new challenge has emerged that
in time when half of the world’s oil resources is fundamentally different in nature. Burning
will have been depleted and during which 1kg of jet fuel generates around 3.2kg of CO ,
2
some analysts expect oil prices to skyrocket (cid:1) the most abundant greenhouse gas (GHG).1
has also contributed to the search for Since the beginning of industrialization, the
alternatives, especially during periods of high atmospheric concentrationofCO has increased
2
oil prices. from 280ppm in 1850 to around 400ppm in
In response to concerns about oil import 2015. Today, aviation generates around 2.5% of
dependence, governments have established a energyuse-relatedCO emissions[12].
2
number of measures that affect the demand In light of the projected continuous increase
for, and especially the supply of, transporta- in the consumption of fossil fuels to satisfy
tion fuels. Key supply side measures have world energy needs, the atmospheric concen-
included funding research with the goal of tration of GHG emissions (primarily CO )
2
developing alternative fuels, supporting the would continue to rise, further driving the
development of unconventional oil resources, anthropogenic greenhouse effect and thus
and forming public-private partnerships to increasing the mean Earth temperature. The
commercialize the production of synthetic projected implications would be unparalleled
fuels. However, as oil prices declined after the in human civilization. The thermal expansion
second oil crisis, so did government support of oceans and the melting of glaciers and ice
for, and industry interest in, alternative fuels. sheets are expected to result in a sea level rise
The United States serves as an illustrative of several metres through 2100, depending on
example. In 1982, Exxon abandoned a $5 bil- the amount of fossil fuels consumed and CO
2
lion investment in the Colony Shale Oil emissions generated [13]. In addition, the fre-
Project, of which it held 60% of the shares [9]. quency of extreme weather events, such as
In 1985, the United States Congress abolished heavy rains and tropical storms, heat and cold
the Synthetic Fuels Corporation, a public- waves, floods and droughts, is projected to
private partnership with the aim of developing continue to increase. These direct impacts are
2millionbarrelsofsyntheticfuelsperdayfrom likely to cause a number of secondary effects
coalandshaleoil[10].Alsoin1985,fundingfor such as increasing income inequality, mass
the Aquatic Species Programme (cid:1) established migration, and terrorism. Fig. 1.1 depicts the
during the Carter Administration with thegoal historical growth trend in atmospheric concen-
ofproducingfuelsfromalgae(cid:1)wasdrastically tration of CO emissions.
2
1InadditiontoCO ,airtransportationcontributestoclimatechangeinotherways.Nitrogenoxideemissions
2
reducetheatmosphericmethaneconcentrationbutproducetroposphericozone,anotherGHG.Theiroveralleffect
isnetwarming.Theimpactofline-shapedcontrailsonthegreenhouseeffectisgreatlyincreasediftheytransition
intocirrusclouds.
I. ANOVERVIEWOFTHESECTOR