Bioenergy Research: Advances and Applications

489 Pages·2014·26.539 MB·English

by  Vijai G. Gupta, Maria Tuohy, Christian P. Kubicek, Jack Saddler and Feng Xu (Eds.)

BIOENERGY
RESEARCH:
ADVANCES AND
APPLICATIONS
Edited by
V K. G , M G. T , C P. K ,
IJAI UPTA ARIA UOHY HRISTIAN UBICEK
J S , F X
ACK ADDLER ENG U
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Preface
The finite nature of fossil fuels and the emission of the integration of waste streams into the raw materials
greenhouse gases as result of the consumption, these for ethanol plants in such models is essential to
resources provide the impetus to seek alternative sour- increase both fuel (ethanol)/bioenergy yields, recover
cesofcleanenergy,whichcanbeproducedinasustain- valuable coproducts and biorefinery feedstocks, as
able manner. This important quest underpins the well as to reduce process costs. Hydrolysis of lignocel-
essential requirement for research and development on lulosic materials is the first step for either digestion to
various types of bioenergy. Bioethanol production has biogas (methane) or fermentation to ethanol. Hydro-
been the focus of considerable research in the context lysis using enzymes (generally derived from microbial
of liquid fuels for transportation. The use of starch- sources) is the preferred option as enzymes can be
based (first-generation) agricultural products as used to selectively convert carbohydrate-rich biopoly-
substratesasbioethanolfeedstocksispossiblebutraises mersinbiomasstofermentablesugars,withoutforma-
some concerns because of potential competition with tion of by-products that inhibit downstream bioenergy
food production. Although numerous investigations and biorefinery conversion processes. However,
on bioenergy have been performed over the past pretreatment of the lignocellulose to reduce its recalci-
decades to clarify the potential of, and to develop trance to enzymatic and microbial conversion is essen-
processes for the use of agricultural crops and biomass tial. Pretreatment by physical, chemical or biological
as feedstock for fuel and energy, the recent period has means is an essential process for ethanol production
seen arenewedintensity of research onbiomasstobio- from lignocellulosic materials. Pretreatment also
energyconversiontechnologiesandprocesses,withthe enhancesthebiodegradabilityofthewastesforethanol
aimofdevelopingeconomicalandsustainablesolutions and biogas production and increases accessibility of
atcommercialscale.Tosupporteconomicsustainability, the enzymes to the biopolymers present in the
biorefinery systems have been implemented to convert biomass/waste feedstocks. Research is necessary to
renewablematerials,suchaswoodoragriculturalcrops, improve process efficiencies in the areas of pretreat-
into additional valuable products such as platform and ment and bioconversion, and to explore new technolo-
feedstock chemicals, and pharma compounds. It is gies for conversion of lignocellulose to bioenergy.
envisaged that the biorefinery concept should enable Similarly, the major challenge for microalgal biodiesel
a transition from the traditional fossil fuel-based plat- production is the high cost of producing microalgal
forms for production of commodity products to more biomass, and the current significant environmental,
environmentally favorable and sustainable bio-based safety and sustainability concerns surrounding the
processes. For researchers and industrialists alike, the recovery and extraction of lipid fractions used for bio-
biorefinery approach brings both significant scientific diesel production. In this sector, the key issues to be
andtechnicalchallengesandmuchopportunityfortech- solvedarethecostsforharvestingthealgae,protection
nologicalinnovation. of the high-oil microalgae from the contamination by
Second-generation bioenergy uses the lignocellulose other algae, and the development of environmentally
present in woody biomass, forestry residue, agricul- and operationally more benign extraction processes.
tural residues, food wastes, agricultural wastes and Another important issue for both lignocellulosic
animal wastes. Agricultural residues include the straw ethanol and microalgal biodiesel processes involves
from wheat and rice, sugar cane bagasse, stem and the development of technologies for the utilization of
roots from food crops, the top ends of trees like euca- coproducts and residues formed through primary
lyptus not used in paper manufacture, and fast devel- bioconversion processes which should increase overall
oping tall grasses (e.g. Miscanthus spp., coastal process economics. Utilization of each fraction in
grasses, etc.). A detailed understanding of the compo- biomass agricultural wastes provides an effective way
sition of the lignocellulosic waste is essential to to minimize environmental pollution, address food
develop and optimize mechanistic models for its security problems and improve agricultural waste
conversion. Inclusion of pretreatment processes to aid management approaches.
ix
x
PREFACE
Thisbookfocusesoncurrentinnovativemethodsand included. It is envisaged that once such approaches
technological developments which are aimed at over- have reached viable commercial scale, global depen-
coming the bottlenecks in biofuel and bioenergy dence on petroleum for a host of products used in
processes. Reviews of the potential of lignocellulosics day-to-day applications will be reduced, and a more
for the production of (bio)chemicals are also included. sustainable global bioeconomy willresult.
Chapters on biorefining routes resulting in a product
with higher market value than ethanol have been Editors
Foreword
Our present industrial civilization relies on the bioenergydaimstousetheavailablebiomassresources
consumption of enormous amounts of energy and asefficientaspossible.At themoment,awiderangeof
much of today’s economic wealth is based on a petro- biomass conversion technologies are under develop-
leum-based economy. Petroleum not only is used as ment to improve efficiencies, lower costs along the
energy in transport but also is the starting material of whole supply chain and improve the environmental
many other products of our daily life including such performance.Butthereisalsoaneedforfurthertechno-
diverse products as plastics, pharmaceuticals, solvents, logical innovation leading to more efficient and cleaner
fertilizers, pesticides and clothing up to the tarmac, conversionofamorediverserangeoffeedstocks.These
which we use for the transport of these products. include not only existing lignocellulosic waste residues
However, our continued reliance on fossil fuels will from forestry, agriculture and urban communities but
make it impossibleto reducegreenhousegas emissions alsothegenerationofnewfeedstocksfromenergycrops
to stop environmental problems such as global warm- ormicroalgae.Afirstwaveofcellulosicbiofuelsdemon-
ing.Withoutdecisiveactions,theglobalusageofenergy stration plants is now reaching completion producing
and energy-related emissions of carbon dioxide is pre- transportation fuels from agro-, forestry and process
dicted to double by 2050. Although there is an active residues. To make the overall process more market
debate when the demand for oil will exceed its supply competitive, these plants co-produce added-value bio-
(Peak Oil), it is clear that our present economic system based products thereby supplying processes that are
will need a major shift to develop effective alternatives less energy or chemically intensive compared to their
includingamoresustainableeconomy.Thissustainable petroleum-based counterparts.
development will be based on renewable energy and Increasing deployment of biomass will include also
biomass sources as well as more efficient ways to use otherchallengesforoursocietyincludinganincreasing
these. competition for land, questions of biodiversity and soil
Traditionally,biomasshasbeenusedtoproducefood, quality or the availability of water resources. But
feed and wood fiber. But biomass can also provide biomass will be an important part of the future energy
energy in the form of (bio)fuels and it can be used as mixtherebycontributingtoalowCO future.Excluding
2
a source of feedstock chemicals replacing the petro- biomass from the energy mix would significantly
leum-based products. The development of such a bio- increasethe cost of decarbonizing ourenergysystem.
basedeconomyisoccurringalreadyatarelativelyrapid This book has been initiated to describe the current
paceandsomeofitsproductsarealreadyonthemarket stageofknowledgeonbioenergyresearchfromvarious
including first-generation biofuels. The commercial perspectives, thereby outlining also those areas where
viability of this approach will depend largely on the furtherprogressisneeded.
availability of cost-competitive technologies capable of
converting (waste) biomass within a holistic concept of Dr. Bernhard Seiboth
a biorefinery to biofuels and other bio-based products.
Professor, Head of Molecular Biotechnology, Vienna
Biorefiningdthe sustainable processing of biomass
University of Technology, Vienna, Austria
into food/feed ingredients, chemicals, materials and
xi
List of Contributors
BrunoC.Aita DepartmentofChemicalEngineering,Federal Ciara´n John Forde AER BIO, National Institute for Bio-
Universityof SantaMaria, SantaMaria, Brazil processing Research & Training (NIBRT), Blackrock, Co.
Y. Allahverdiyeva Department of Biochemistry, University Dublin,Ireland
ofTurku,Turku,Finland Michael P. Garver Department of Paper and Bioprocess
Samuel Amartey Division of Biology, Imperial College of Engineering, College of Environmental Science and
Forestry,StateUniversityofNewYork,Syracuse,NY,USA
Science, Technology and Medicine, South Kensington,
London,UK Juliana M. Gasparotto Department of Chemical Engi-
M. Anusree Biotechnology Division, National Institute for neering, Federal University of Santa Maria, Santa Maria,
Brazil
Interdisciplinary Science and Technology (NIIST), CSIR,
Trivandrum,Kerala,India Maria Gavrilescu Department of Environmental Engi-
E.M. Aro Department of Biochemistry, University of Turku, neering and Management, Gheorghe Asachi Technical
University of Iasi, Iasi, Romania; Academy of Romanian
Turku,Finland
Scientists, Bucharest, Romania
Rama Raju Baadhe Department of Biotechnology, National
NishantGopalan BiotechnologyDivision,NationalInstitute
InstituteofTechnology,Warangal, AndhraPradesh, India
forInterdisciplinaryScienceandTechnology(NIIST),CSIR,
Mikhail Balakshin Renmatix, R&D Department, King of
Trivandrum,Kerala,India
Prussia,PA, USA
Vipin Gopinath Biotechnology Division, National Institute
Alex Berlin Novozymes, Protein Chemistry Department,
for Interdisciplinary Science and Technology (NIIST),
Davis,CA, USA
CSIR,Trivandrum, Kerala,India
SusanBoland AERBIO,NationalInstituteforBioprocessing
RichardJ.A.Gosselink FoodandBiobasedResearch,Wage-
Research & Training (NIBRT), Blackrock, Co. Dublin,
ningenUR,Wageningen, The Netherlands
Ireland
Tingyue Gu Department of Chemical and Biomolecular
John Bosco Carrigan AER BIO, National Institute for Bio-
Engineering, OhioUniversity,Athens, OH,USA
processing Research & Training (NIBRT), Blackrock, Co.
Vijai K. Gupta Molecular Glycobiotechnology Group,
Dublin,Ireland
Department of Biochemistry, School of Natural Sciences,
Maria Aparecida F. Cesar-Oliveira Research Center in
NationalUniversity ofIrelandGalway, Galway,Ireland
Applied Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, Federal
Universityof Parana´,Curitiba, Parana´,Brazil Patrick C. Hallenbeck De´partement de Microbiologie et
Immunologie, Universite´ de Montre´al, Montre´al, Que´bec,
Daniel P. Chielle Department of Chemical Engineering,
Canada
FederalUniversity ofSanta Maria,Santa Maria, Brazil
Daniel J. Hassett Department of Molecular Genetics,
Rhykka Connelly UT Algae Science and Technology
Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Cincinnati,
Facility,University ofTexas atAustin, Austin,TX, USA
CollegeofMedicine, Cincinnati, OH,USA
Claudiney S. Cordeiro Research Center in Applied Chem-
Alan Hernon AERBIO,NationalInstituteforBioprocessing
istry, Department of Chemistry, Federal University of
Research&Training(NIBRT),Blackrock,Co.Dublin,Ireland
Parana´,Curitiba, Parana´,Brazil
Charles Hyland Department of Civil & Environmental
Ed de Jong Avantium Chemicals, Amsterdam, The
Engineering, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New
Netherlands
Zealand
KiranS.Dhar BiotechnologyDivision,NationalInstitutefor
TaoJin KeyLaboratoryofPollutionProcessesandEnviron-
Interdisciplinary Science and Technology (NIIST), CSIR,
mentalCriteria(MinistryofEducation),CollegeofEnviron-
Trivandrum,Kerala,India
mental Science and Engineering, Nankai University,
HanshuDing DepartmentofProteinChemistry,Novozymes Tianjin,China
Inc.,Davis,California,USA
Vasiliki Kachrimanidou Department of Food Science and
Thaddeus Chukwuemeka Ezeji The Ohio State University, Human Nutrition, Agricultural University of Athens,
DepartmentofAnimalSciencesandOhioStateAgricultural Athens,Greece
ResearchandDevelopmentCenter(OARDC),Wooster,OH,
Rodrigo Klaic Department of Chemical Engineering,
USA
FederalUniversity ofSanta Maria, SantaMaria, Brazil
xiii
xiv
LISTOFCONTRIBUTORS
Nikolaos Kopsahelis Department of Food Science and Shirley Nakagaki Research Center in Applied Chemistry,
Human Nutrition, Agricultural University of Athens, Department of Chemistry, Federal University of Parana´,
Athens,Greece Curitiba, Parana´,Brazil
S.N. Kosourov Department of Biochemistry, University of K. Madhavan Nampoothiri Biotechnology Division,
Turku,Turku,Finland National Institute for Interdisciplinary Science and Tech-
Apostolis A. Koutinas Department of Food Science and nology (NIIST),CSIR, Trivandrum, Kerala,India
Human Nutrition, Agricultural University of Athens, W.J. Oosterkamp Oosterkamp Oosterbeek Octooien, The
Athens,Greece Netherlands
Christian P. Kubicek Research Area Biotechnology and Anthonia O’Donovan Molecular Glycobiotechnology
Microbiology, Institute ofChemical Engineering, TUWien, Group, Department of Biochemistry, School of Natural
GumpendorferstrasseWien, Austria Sciences, National University of Ireland Galway, Galway,
Jyothi Kumaran Human Health Therapeutics, National Ireland
Research Council Canada, Ottawa, ON, Canada; School of Irmene Ort´ız Departamento de Procesos yTecnolog´ıa, Uni-
Environmental Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, versidad Auto´noma Metropolitana - Cuajimalpa, Me´xico
ON,Canada D.F., Me´xico
Gustavo B. Leite De´partement de Microbiologie et Ravichandra Potumarthi Department of Chemical Engi-
Immunologie, Universite´ de Montre´al, Montre´al, Que´bec, neering,Monash University, Clayton,Victoria,Australia
Canada Wensheng Qin Department of Biology, Lakehead Univer-
Xiangling Li Aquatic and Crop Resource Development, sity, ON,Canada
National Research Council Canada, Ottawa, ON, Canada; Rodolfo Quintero Departamento de Procesos y Tecnolog´ıa,
College of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou University of Universidad Auto´noma Metropolitana - Cuajimalpa,
ChineseMedicine, Guangzhou,China Me´xicoD.F., Me´xico
Shijie Liu Department of Paper and Bioprocess Engi- Nasib Qureshi United States Department of Agriculture,
neering, College of Environmental Science and Forestry,
National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research,
State University ofNewYork, Syracuse,NY,USA
ARS,BioenergyResearch,Peoria, IL,USA
Fan Lu College of Bioengineering, Hubei University of Luiz P. Ramos Research Center in Applied Chemistry,
Technology, Wuhan, HubeiProvince, China Department of Chemistry, Federal University of Parana´,
MirandaMaki DepartmentofBiology,LakeheadUniversity, Curitiba, Parana´,Brazil
ON,Canada Gabrielly V. Ribeiro Department of Chemical Engineering,
Nirupama Mallick Agricultural and Food Engineering FederalUniversity ofSanta Maria, SantaMaria, Brazil
Department, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, Paulo R.S. Salbego Department of Chemical Engineering,
WestBengal, India FederalUniversity ofSanta Maria, SantaMaria, Brazil
ShovonMandal SectionofEcology,BehaviorandEvolution, AjitK.Sarmah DepartmentofCivil&EnvironmentalEngi-
University ofCalifornia, SanDiego, CA, USA
neering, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New
Marcio A. Mazutti Department of Chemical Engineering, Zealand
FederalUniversity ofSanta Maria, SantaMaria, Brazil Gauri Dutt Sharma Bilaspur University, Bilaspur, Chattis-
Mark P. McHenry School of Engineering and Information garh, India
Technology,MurdochUniversity,Perth,WesternAustralia, DongShen Tong ResearchGroupforAdvancedMaterials&
Australia
Sustainable Catalysis (AMSC), Breeding Base of State
Marie Meaney AER BIO, National Institute for Bio- Key Laboratory of Green Chemistry Synthesis Technology,
processing Research & Training (NIBRT), Blackrock, Co. College of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science,
Dublin,Ireland Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, Zhejiang,
Naveen Kumar Mekala Department of Biotechnology, China
National Institute of Technology, Warangal, Andhra FabianeM.Stringhini DepartmentofChemicalEngineering,
Pradesh,India FederalUniversityofSantaMaria,SantaMaria,Brazil
Clive Mills AER BIO, National Institute for Bioprocessing Maria G. Tuohy Molecular Glycobiotechnology Group,
Research & Training (NIBRT), Blackrock, Co. Dublin, Department of Biochemistry, School of Natural
Ireland Sciences, National University of Ireland Galway, Galway,
Je´ssica M. Moscon Department of Chemical Engineering, Ireland
FederalUniversity ofSanta Maria, SantaMaria, Brazil Victor Ujor The Ohio State University, Department of
Adrian Muller ResearchInstitute ofOrganicFarming FiBL, Animal Sciences and Ohio State Agricultural Research
Zurich,Switzerland;InstituteforEnvironmentalDecisions, andDevelopment Center(OARDC), Wooster, OH,USA
Swiss Federal Institutes of Technology (ETH), Zurich, LuizJ.Visioli DepartmentofChemicalEngineering,Federal
Switzerland University ofSantaMaria, Santa Maria, Brazil
xv
LISTOFCONTRIBUTORS
Hongyu Wang Key Laboratory of Pollution Processes and Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai Univer-
Environmental Criteria (Ministry of Education), College of sity,Tianjin, China
Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai Univer- Yanbin Yin Department of Biological Sciences, Northern
sity,Tianjin, China Illinois University,DeKalb, IL,USA
ColinWebb SchoolofChemicalEngineeringandAnalytical Wei Hua Yu Research Group for Advanced Materials &
Science, University of Manchester, Manchester, England, Sustainable Catalysis (AMSC), Breeding Base of State Key
UnitedKingdom Laboratory of Green Chemistry Synthesis Technology,
Lin Mei Wu Research Group for Advanced Materials & College of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science,
Sustainable Catalysis (AMSC), Breeding Base of State Key Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, Zhejiang,
Laboratory of Green Chemistry Synthesis Technology, China
College of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, Chun Hui Zhou ResearchGroupforAdvancedMaterials&
Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, Sustainable Catalysis (AMSC), Breeding Base of State Key
China Laboratory of Green Chemistry Synthesis Technology,
Fernando Wypych Research Center in Applied Chemistry, College of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science,
Department of Chemistry, Federal University of Parana´, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, Zhejiang,
Curitiba, Parana´,Brazil China; The Institute for Agriculture and the Environment,
FengXu DepartmentofProteinChemistry,NovozymesInc., University of Southern Queensland, Queensland,
Australia
Davis,California, USA
Trent Chunzhong Yang Aquatic and Crop Resource Devel- Minghua Zhou Key Laboratory of Pollution Processes and
opment, National Research Council Canada, Ottawa, ON, Environmental Criteria (Ministry of Education), College of
Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai Univer-
Canada
sity,Tianjin, China
JieYang KeyLaboratoryofPollutionProcessesandEnviron-
mental Criteria (Ministry of Education), College of
C H A P T E R
1
Current Bioenergy Researches: Strengths
and Future Challenges
1 2,
Naveen Kumar Mekala , Ravichandra Potumarthi *,
Rama Raju Baadhe1, Vijai K. Gupta3
1Department of Biotechnology, National Institute of Technology, Warangal, Andhra Pradesh, India,
2DepartmentofChemicalEngineering,MonashUniversity,Clayton,Victoria,Australia,3MolecularGlycobiotechnology
Group,DepartmentofBiochemistry,SchoolofNaturalSciences,NationalUniversityofIrelandGalway,Galway,Ireland
*Corresponding author email: [email protected]; [email protected]
O U T L I N E
Introduction 1 Biodiesel 9
Different Forms of Bioenergy 3 Feedstocks forBiodiesel 10
BiodieselfromPureVegetableOil 10
Biopellets 3
BiodieselfromAnimalFatWastes 11
Bioethanol 3 OtherWasteCookingOils 12
Feedstockfor Bioethanol 3 AlgaeasaBiodieselSource 12
Pretreatment of Lignocelluloses 4 Bioreactors for Biodiesel Production 13
BiologicalPretreatment 5
Biogas 14
PhysicalPretreatment 6
Biogas Feedstock 15
Chemical
Household Digestersfor Biogas 15
Pretreatment 6
FixedDomeDigesters 15
Bioethanol Fermentation 7
FloatingDrumDigesters 16
MolecularBiology Trends in Bioethanol
SocialandEnvironmentalAspectsofBiogasDigesters 17
Production Development 8
Bioreactors in Ethanol Conclusion 17
Production 8
References 18
Immobilization of Cells for Ethanol
Production 9
INTRODUCTION rate of consumption, crude oil reserves, natural gas
and liquid fuels were expected to last for around 60
Modernworldisfacingtwovitalchallenges,energy and 120years, respectively (British Petroleum Statisti-
crisis and environmental pollution. Energy is a key cal Review, 2011). An additional challenge with fossil
component for all sectors of modern economy and fuel consumption is emission of greenhouse gases
plays an elementary role in improving the quality of (GHGs). In 2010, an average of 450g of CO was
2
life (US DOE, 2010). In current situations, approxi- emitted by production of 1kWh of electricity from the
mately 80% of world energy supplies rely on rapidly coal (Figure 1.1) (International Energy Agency Statis-
exhausting nonrenewable fossil fuels. At the current tics, 2012). It isalso clearthatcoal’s shareoftheglobal
1
BioenergyResearch:AdvancesandApplications
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-59561-4.00001-2 Copyright(cid:1)2014ElsevierB.V.Allrightsreserved.
2
1. CURRENTBIOENERGYRESEARCHES:STRENGTHSANDFUTURECHALLENGES
Energy production
Level : World
Legend
Mtoe :
[ 2 347.03 ; 2 347.03 ]
[ 1 993.36 ; 2 347.03 ]
[ 1 605.20 ; 1 993.36 ]
[ 1 253.92 ; 1 605.20 ]
[ 1 160.87 ; 1 253.92 ]
[ 1 066.08 ; 1 160.87 ]
[ 727.64 ; 1 066.08 ]
[ 63.86 ; 727.64 ]
FIGURE1.1 Globalenergyproductionchartsignifiesthegrowingdemandforenergy. Source:IEA,2012.(Forcolorversionofthisfigure,the
readerisreferredtotheonlineversionofthisbook.)
energy continues to rise, and by 2017 coal will come The exploitation of currently unused by-products
closetosurpassingoilastheworld’stopenergysource. and growing energy crops can address other existing
China and India lead the growth in coal consumption environmental concerns. Perennial energy crops and
overthenext5years.ResearchsaysChinawillsurpass plantationsaregenerallycharacterizedbyhigherbiodi-
therestoftheworldincoaldemandduringtheoutlook versity compared with conventional annual crops. By
period, while India will become the largest seaborne providing more continuous soil cover, they reduce the
coalimporterandsecondlargestconsumer,surpassing impact of rainfall and sediment transport, thereby pre-
the United States (IEA, 2012). venting soil erosion. The introduction of annual energy
Growing global energy needs, release of environ- crops into crop systems allows for diversification and
mentalpollutantsfromfossilfuelsandnationalsecurity expansion of crop rotations, replacing less favorable
havefinallytunedtheattention incleanliquidfuelasa monocropping systems (Kheshgi et al., 1996). Defor-
suitablealternativesourceofenergy.Thealternativebio- ested, degraded andmarginallandcan berehabilitated
energysources,notonlycutthedependenceonoiltrade with bioenergy plantations, thus helping to combat
and reduce the doubts caused by the fluctuations in oil desertification andhopefullyreducingmarket andgeo-
price,butalsosecurereductionsinenvironmentalpollu- socialpressures onhigh-quality arable land.
tionduetotheirhighoxygencontent(Huangetal.,2008; Biofuelscanbeobtainedinbulkwhentheyarederived
Boeret al., 2000). from agricultural crops, crop residues and processing
Inthiscontext,theavailabilityofbioenergyinitstwo wastes from agroindustries, forests, etc. Despite this
main appearances, wood and agro energy can offer immense potential, existing biofuel policies have been
cleaner energy services to meet basic energy require- verycostly;theyproduceslightreductionsinfossilfuel
ments. This century could see a remarkable switchover useandincrease,ratherthandecrease,inGHGemissions
from fossil fuel-based energy to bioenergy-based econ- (WuebblesandJain,2001).However,recentvolatilityand
omy, with agriculture and forestry as the main sources rise in international fossil fuel prices, make biomass
of feedstock for biofuels such as wood pellets, fuel- increasinglycompetitiveasenergyfeedstock.
wood, charcoal, bioethanol, and biodiesel (Agarwal, Current bioenergy research around the globe
2007). Moreover, energy crops can be part of highly shoulddirectustowardreducedproductioncost,higher
specialized and various agricultural production chains energy conversion efficiency and greater cost-
and biorefineries, where a variety of bioproducts could effectiveness of biofuels. After all weare aware ofa fact
be obtained besides bioenergy, which are important for “useofbiomassasapotentiallylargesourceofenergyin
their economic competitiveness (United Nations Envi- the 21st century will have a significant impact in rural,
ronment Program,2006). agriculturalandforestrydevelopment”(UNEP,2006).