Biodegradable green composites

380 Pages·2016·23.676 MB·English

by  Kalia, Susheel

BiodegradaBle green Composites

BiodegradaBle
green Composites
Edited by
susheel Kalia
Army Cadet College Wing
Indian Military Academy, Dehradun
India
Copyright © 2016 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved
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Published simultaneously in Canada
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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data:
9781118911099 [hardback]
Set in 10/12pt Times by SPi Global, Pondicherry, India
Printed in the United States of America
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1 2016
CONTENTS
Contributors xii
Preface xiv
1 Biodegradable Green Composites 1
Sreerag Gopi, Anitha Pius, and Sabu Thomas
1.1 Introduction 2
1.2 Biodegradable Polymers 2
1.2.1 Starch 2
1.2.2 Cellulose 4
1.2.3 Chitin and Chitosan 4
1.2.4 Proteins 5
1.3 Nanofillers for Composites 5
1.3.1 Cellulose‐Based Nanofillers 5
1.3.2 Carbon Nanotube 7
1.3.3 Clay 7
1.3.4 Functional Fillers 7
1.4 Nanocomposites from Renewable Resources 8
1.4.1 Cellulose Nanocomposites 9
1.4.2 CNT Nanocomposites 9
1.4.3 Clay Nanocomposites 10
1.4.4 Functional Nanocomposites 10
1.5 Processing of Green Composites 10
vi CONTENTS
1.6 Applications 11
1.6.1 Packaging 11
1.6.2 Electronics, Sensor, and Energy Applications 11
1.6.3 Medicinal Applications 12
1.7 Conclusion 12
References 12
2 Surface Modification of Natural Fibers Using Plasma Treatment 18
Danmei Sun
2.1 Introduction 19
2.1.1 Natural Fiber Materials and their Properties 19
2.1.2 Conventional Modification Methods and Drawbacks 19
2.1.3 Plasma Environment and the Advantages of Plasma
Surface Modification 20
2.2 Mechanisms of Plasma Treatment and Types of Plasma Machines 21
2.2.1 Principle of Plasma Surface Modification 21
2.2.2 Interactive Mechanisms between Plasma and Substrates 22
2.2.3 Types of Plasma Treatment Systems 24
2.3 Effects and Applications of Plasma Treatment 27
2.3.1 Surface Morphology and Chemical Composition Change 27
2.3.2 Improved Hydrophilicity and Efficiency in Aqueous
Processes 28
2.3.3 Improved Hydrophobicity 31
2.3.4 Mechanical Properties Affected by Plasma Treatment 33
2.3.5 Medical Applications of Plasma Treatment 34
2.3.6 Plasma‐Modified Fibers in Polymer Composites 34
2.3.7 Other Areas of Applications 35
2.4 Conclusions and Industrial Implications 35
References 35
3 Reinforcing Potential of Enzymatically Modified Natural Fibers 40
Levent Onal and Yekta Karaduman
3.1 Introduction 41
3.2 Enzymes 42
3.2.1 A Brief History 42
3.2.2 Classification and Nomenclature 43
3.2.3 Enzyme Structure 43
3.2.4 Enzymatic Catalysis 44
3.3 Natural Fibers as Enzyme Substrates 45
3.3.1 Physical Properties of Lignocellulosic Fibers 46
3.3.2 Chemical Properties and Composition of
Lignocellulosic Fibers 47
3.3.2.1 Cellulose 47
3.3.2.2 Hemicellulose 49
3.3.2.3 Lignin 49
CONTENTS vii
3.3.2.4 Pectin 50
3.3.2.5 Other Aromatic Compounds 51
3.3.2.6 Fats, Waxes, and Lipids 51
3.4 Types of Enzymes Used in Natural Fiber Modification 51
3.4.1 Cellulases 51
3.4.2 Xylanases 52
3.4.3 Pectinases 53
3.4.4 Laccases 53
3.5 Effect of Enzymatic Treatment on the Structure
and Properties of Natural Fibers 54
3.6 Polymer Composites Reinforced with Enzymatically 
Modified Natural Fibers 62
3.7 Enzyme‐Assisted Biografting Methods 69
3.8 Conclusions 73
References 74
4 Recent Developments in Surface Modification of
Natural Fibers for their use in Biocomposites 80
Jaspreet Kaur Bhatia, Balbir Singh Kaith, and Susheel Kalia
4.1 Introduction 81
4.2 Biocomposites 82
4.2.1 Classification: Biomass Derived and
Petroleum‐Derived Matrix 83
4.2.2 Advantage over Traditional Composites 86
4.3 Natural Fiber: Structure and Composition 86
4.4 Surface Modification of Natural Fibers 89
4.4.1 Silylation, Esterification, and other Surface Chemical
Modifications 89
4.4.2 Noncovalent Surface Chemical Modifications 93
4.4.3 Cationization 95
4.4.4 Polymer Grafting 95
4.4.5 TEMPO‐Mediated Oxidation 98
4.4.6 Green Modification 100
4.5 Biocomposites: Recent Trends and Opportunities for the Future 100
4.6 Biodegradability of Biocomposites 101
4.7 Conclusions 103
References 105
5 Nanocellulose‐Based Green Nanocomposite Materials 118
Qi Zhou and Núria Butchosa
5.1 Introduction 119
5.2 Nanocellulose 119
5.2.1 Cellulose Nanocrystals 120
5.2.2 Cellulose Nanofibrils 120
5.2.3 Bacterial Cellulose 122
viii CONTENTS
5.3 Composite Matrices 122
5.3.1 Cellulose and Cellulose Derivatives 122
5.3.2 Hemicelluloses and other Polysaccharides 123
5.3.3 Starch 124
5.3.4 Chitin and Chitosan 125
5.3.5 Proteins 126
5.3.6 Polylactic Acid and Poly(ε‐Caprolactone) 127
5.3.7 Inorganic Nanoparticles 128
5.4 Composite Properties 129
5.4.1 Thermal and Mechanical Properties 129
5.4.2 Barrier Properties 130
5.4.3 Antimicrobial Properties 133
5.4.4 Optical Properties 134
5.5 Conclusions 136
References 137
6 Poly(Lactic Acid) Hybrid Green Composites 149
Mahbub Hasan, Azman Hassan, and Zainoha Zakaria
6.1 Introduction 150
6.2 Manufacturing Techniques of PLA Hybrid Green Composites 151
6.2.1 Melt Mixing/Blending 151
6.2.2 Extrusion/Injection Molding 153
6.2.3 Other Techniques 155
6.3 Properties of PLA Hybrid Green Composites 156
6.3.1 Mechanical Properties 156
6.3.1.1 Tensile Properties 156
6.3.1.2 Flexural Properties 157
6.3.1.3 Impact Strength 158
6.3.2 Dynamic Mechanical Properties 158
6.3.3 Thermal Properties 160
6.3.3.1 Thermogravimetric Analysis 160
6.3.3.2 Differential Scanning Calorimetry 162
6.3.4 Surface Morphology 162
6.3.5 Electrical Properties 163
6.4 Applications of PLA Hybrid Green Composites 164
6.5 Conclusions 164
References 164
7 Lignin/Nanolignin and their Biodegradable Composites 167
Anupama Rangan, M.V. Manjula, K.G. Satyanarayana, and Reghu Menon
7.1 Introduction 168
7.1.1 Renewable Bioresources-Sustainability and
Biodegradability Issues 168
7.1.2 Nanotechnology and Application of Nanotechnology
(Specifically for Cellulose and Lignin) 170