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Biodegradable green composites PDF

380 Pages·2016·23.676 MB·English
by  KaliaSusheel
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BiodegradaBle green Composites BiodegradaBle green Composites Edited by susheel Kalia Army Cadet College Wing Indian Military Academy, Dehradun India Copyright © 2016 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey Published simultaneously in Canada No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per‐copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) 750‐8400, fax (978) 750‐4470, or on the web at www.copyright.com. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, (201) 748‐6011, fax (201) 748‐6008, or online at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions. Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives or written sales materials. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a professional where appropriate. Neither the publisher nor author shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages. For general information on our other products and services or for technical support, please contact our Customer Care Department within the United States at (800) 762‐2974, outside the United States at (317) 572‐3993 or fax (317) 572‐4002. Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic formats. For more information about Wiley products, visit our web site at www.wiley.com. Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data: 9781118911099 [hardback] Set in 10/12pt Times by SPi Global, Pondicherry, India Printed in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2016 CONTENTS Contributors xii Preface xiv 1 Biodegradable Green Composites 1 Sreerag Gopi, Anitha Pius, and Sabu Thomas 1.1 Introduction 2 1.2 Biodegradable Polymers 2 1.2.1 Starch 2 1.2.2 Cellulose 4 1.2.3 Chitin and Chitosan 4 1.2.4 Proteins 5 1.3 Nanofillers for Composites 5 1.3.1 Cellulose‐Based Nanofillers 5 1.3.2 Carbon Nanotube 7 1.3.3 Clay 7 1.3.4 Functional Fillers 7 1.4 Nanocomposites from Renewable Resources 8 1.4.1 Cellulose Nanocomposites 9 1.4.2 CNT Nanocomposites 9 1.4.3 Clay Nanocomposites 10 1.4.4 Functional Nanocomposites 10 1.5 Processing of Green Composites 10 vi CONTENTS 1.6 Applications 11 1.6.1 Packaging 11 1.6.2 Electronics, Sensor, and Energy Applications 11 1.6.3 Medicinal Applications 12 1.7 Conclusion 12 References 12 2 Surface Modification of Natural Fibers Using Plasma Treatment 18 Danmei Sun 2.1 Introduction 19 2.1.1 Natural Fiber Materials and their Properties 19 2.1.2 Conventional Modification Methods and Drawbacks 19 2.1.3 Plasma Environment and the Advantages of Plasma Surface Modification 20 2.2 Mechanisms of Plasma Treatment and Types of Plasma Machines 21 2.2.1 Principle of Plasma Surface Modification 21 2.2.2 Interactive Mechanisms between Plasma and Substrates 22 2.2.3 Types of Plasma Treatment Systems 24 2.3 Effects and Applications of Plasma Treatment 27 2.3.1 Surface Morphology and Chemical Composition Change 27 2.3.2 Improved Hydrophilicity and Efficiency in Aqueous Processes 28 2.3.3 Improved Hydrophobicity 31 2.3.4 Mechanical Properties Affected by Plasma Treatment 33 2.3.5 Medical Applications of Plasma Treatment 34 2.3.6 Plasma‐Modified Fibers in Polymer Composites 34 2.3.7 Other Areas of Applications 35 2.4 Conclusions and Industrial Implications 35 References 35 3 Reinforcing Potential of Enzymatically Modified Natural Fibers 40 Levent Onal and Yekta Karaduman 3.1 Introduction 41 3.2 Enzymes 42 3.2.1 A Brief History 42 3.2.2 Classification and Nomenclature 43 3.2.3 Enzyme Structure 43 3.2.4 Enzymatic Catalysis 44 3.3 Natural Fibers as Enzyme Substrates 45 3.3.1 Physical Properties of Lignocellulosic Fibers 46 3.3.2 Chemical Properties and Composition of Lignocellulosic Fibers 47 3.3.2.1 Cellulose 47 3.3.2.2 Hemicellulose 49 3.3.2.3 Lignin 49 CONTENTS vii 3.3.2.4 Pectin 50 3.3.2.5 Other Aromatic Compounds 51 3.3.2.6 Fats, Waxes, and Lipids 51 3.4 Types of Enzymes Used in Natural Fiber Modification 51 3.4.1 Cellulases 51 3.4.2 Xylanases 52 3.4.3 Pectinases 53 3.4.4 Laccases 53 3.5 Effect of Enzymatic Treatment on the Structure and Properties of Natural Fibers 54 3.6 Polymer Composites Reinforced with Enzymatically  Modified Natural Fibers 62 3.7 Enzyme‐Assisted Biografting Methods 69 3.8 Conclusions 73 References 74 4 Recent Developments in Surface Modification of Natural Fibers for their use in Biocomposites 80 Jaspreet Kaur Bhatia, Balbir Singh Kaith, and Susheel Kalia 4.1 Introduction 81 4.2 Biocomposites 82 4.2.1 Classification: Biomass Derived and Petroleum‐Derived Matrix 83 4.2.2 Advantage over Traditional Composites 86 4.3 Natural Fiber: Structure and Composition 86 4.4 Surface Modification of Natural Fibers 89 4.4.1 Silylation, Esterification, and other Surface Chemical Modifications 89 4.4.2 Noncovalent Surface Chemical Modifications 93 4.4.3 Cationization 95 4.4.4 Polymer Grafting 95 4.4.5 TEMPO‐Mediated Oxidation 98 4.4.6 Green Modification 100 4.5 Biocomposites: Recent Trends and Opportunities for the Future 100 4.6 Biodegradability of Biocomposites 101 4.7 Conclusions 103 References 105 5 Nanocellulose‐Based Green Nanocomposite Materials 118 Qi Zhou and Núria Butchosa 5.1 Introduction 119 5.2 Nanocellulose 119 5.2.1 Cellulose Nanocrystals 120 5.2.2 Cellulose Nanofibrils 120 5.2.3 Bacterial Cellulose 122 viii CONTENTS 5.3 Composite Matrices 122 5.3.1 Cellulose and Cellulose Derivatives 122 5.3.2 Hemicelluloses and other Polysaccharides 123 5.3.3 Starch 124 5.3.4 Chitin and Chitosan 125 5.3.5 Proteins 126 5.3.6 Polylactic Acid and Poly(ε‐Caprolactone) 127 5.3.7 Inorganic Nanoparticles 128 5.4 Composite Properties 129 5.4.1 Thermal and Mechanical Properties 129 5.4.2 Barrier Properties 130 5.4.3 Antimicrobial Properties 133 5.4.4 Optical Properties 134 5.5 Conclusions 136 References 137 6 Poly(Lactic Acid) Hybrid Green Composites 149 Mahbub Hasan, Azman Hassan, and Zainoha Zakaria 6.1 Introduction 150 6.2 Manufacturing Techniques of PLA Hybrid Green Composites 151 6.2.1 Melt Mixing/Blending 151 6.2.2 Extrusion/Injection Molding 153 6.2.3 Other Techniques 155 6.3 Properties of PLA Hybrid Green Composites 156 6.3.1 Mechanical Properties 156 6.3.1.1 Tensile Properties 156 6.3.1.2 Flexural Properties 157 6.3.1.3 Impact Strength 158 6.3.2 Dynamic Mechanical Properties 158 6.3.3 Thermal Properties 160 6.3.3.1 Thermogravimetric Analysis 160 6.3.3.2 Differential Scanning Calorimetry 162 6.3.4 Surface Morphology 162 6.3.5 Electrical Properties 163 6.4 Applications of PLA Hybrid Green Composites 164 6.5 Conclusions 164 References 164 7 Lignin/Nanolignin and their Biodegradable Composites 167 Anupama Rangan, M.V. Manjula, K.G. Satyanarayana, and Reghu Menon 7.1 Introduction 168 7.1.1 Renewable Bioresources-Sustainability and Biodegradability Issues 168 7.1.2 Nanotechnology and Application of Nanotechnology (Specifically for Cellulose and Lignin) 170

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