Bioconversion of Waste Materials to Industrial Products

568 Pages·1998·14.18 MB·English

by  Peter Gacesa

Bioconversion of Waste Materials to
Industrial Products
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Bioconversion of Waste
Materials to Industrial
Products
Second edition
Edited by
A.M. MARTIN
Department of Biochemistry
Memorial University of Newfoundland
St John's
Canada
m
SPRINGER SCIENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, LLC
First edition 1991
Second edition 1998
© 1998 Springer Science+Business Media New York
Originally published by Blackie Academic & Professional in 1998
Typeset in 10/12pt Times by Cambrian Typesetters, Frimley, Surrey
ISBN 978-1-4613-7668-2 ISBN 978-1-4615-5821-7 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-1-4615-5821-7
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,
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legal responsibility or liability for any errors or omissions that may be made.
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 97-76802
Printed on permanent acid-free text paper, manufactured in accordance
with ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992 (Permanence of Paper).
Contents
List of contributors xiii
Preface xvii
Preface to the first edition xix
Part One: The Principles of Bioconversion of Waste Materials
1 The enzymic treatment of waste materials 3
PETER GACESA and JOHN HUBBLE
1. Introduction 3
1.2 Factors influencing enzyme use 3
1.2.1 Sources of enzymes 3
1.2.2 Enzyme stability 7
1.3 Application of enzymes 12
1.3.1 Hydrolases 12
1.3.2 Nonhydrolytic enzymes 16
1.4 Enzymes with modified activities 19
1.4.1 Applications of molecular techniques 19
1.4.2 Nonaqueous/low water systems 20
1.5 Conclusions 24
References 25
2 Processes with immobilized enzymes and cells 29
SEVERIAN DUMITRIU and ESTEBAN CHORNET
2.1 Current status of immobilized enzyme technology 29
2.1.1 Advantages and disadvantages of enzyme and cell immobilization 29
2.1.2 Immobilization of microorganisms or enzymes? 31
2.2 Immobilization procedures 31
2.2.1 Carriers 31
2.2.2 Methods of immobilization 32
2.3 Reactors for immobilized biomaterial systems 54
2.4 Waste conversion in the dairy industry 57
2.4.1 Bioconversion of whey 57
2.4.2 Milk processing 59
2.5 Bioconversion of cellulosic wastes 60
2.5.1 Conversion of cellulose to ethanol 60
2.6 Hemicellulose conversion 61
2.6.1 Conversion of xylose 62
2.7 Bioconversion of starch wastes 62
2.7.1 Simultaneous saccharification and fermentation of starch 63
2.7.2 Recovery of waste glucose solutions 69
2.7.3 Recovery of waste from beet sugar industry 71
VI CONTENTS
2.8 Immobilized enzymes in organic solvents 73
2.8.1 Bioconversion of lipids 76
2.9 Waste treatment 78
2.9.1 Methane bioconversion of wastes 78
2.9.2 Immobilized cells and waste water treatment 83
2.10 Immobilized microorganisms in waste gas purification 89
References 91
3 Solid substrate fermentation: a biotechnological approach
to bioconversion of wastes 103
O. PAREDES-L6PEZ, S.H. GUZMAN-MALDONADO and
A. ALPUCHE-SOLIS
3.1 Introduction 103
3.2 Critical factors for microbial growth on solid substrates 105
3.2.1 Water activity and moisture 105
3.2.2 Temperature 107
3.2.3 pH 109
3.2.4 Aeration and oxygen transfer 110
3.2.5 Mixing 112
3.3 Microbial growth patterns and control of fermentation 113
3.3.1 Microbial types and inoculum 113
3.3.2 Microbial growth patterns and growth rate 114
3.3.3 Control by physical and nutritional factors 117
3.4 Genetic engineering for biodegradation of lignocellulosic wastes 118
3.4.1 Lignin biodegradation 119
3.4.2 Cellulose bioconversion 123
3.4.3 Practical applications of a lignin biodegradation system 123
3.5 Reactors for solid substrate fermentation 124
3.5.1 Tray fermenter 125
3.5.2 Rotating drum fermenter 126
3.5.3 Packed-column fermenter 126
3.5.4 Auger tube fermenter 127
3.5.5 Helical screw fermenter 127
3.5.6 Fluidized biomass fermenter 127
3.5.7 Miscellaneous types 128
3.6 Fermentation processes and compositional changes 130
3.6.1 SSF processes 130
3.6.2 Some currently practiced SSF processes 132
3.7 Advantages, disadvantages and future prospects of SSF 146
3.7.1 Advantages and disadvantages 146
3.7.2 Futureprospects 147
Acknowledgements 148
References 148
4 Composting processes 154
S.P. MATHUR
4.1 Introduction 154
4.2 Definition and principles of composting 156
4.2.1 Definition 156
4.2.2 Principles 156
4.2.3 Compost feedstocks 157
4.2.4 Requirements of optimal composting 160
4.3 Chemistry and biology of the compo sting process 176
4.4 The technology of composting 178
CONTENTS VB
4.4.1 Open systems 179
4.4.2 In-vessel (or reactor confined) systems 184
4.5 Criteria of compost maturity 184
4.5.1 C/N ratio 186
4.5.2 Absence of plant inhibitors 186
4.5.3 Absence of human pathogens 186
4.5.4 Other criteria 187
4.6 Uses of composts 187
4.7 Summary 188
References 189
Part Two: Bioconversion Applications
5 Bioprocessing of agro-residues to value added products 197
V. S. BISARIA
5.1 Introduction 197
5.2 Characteristics of lignocellulosic materials and their pretreatment 201
5.2.1 Lignocellulosic materials 201
5.2.2 Physical and chemical constraints in enzymatic hydrolysis
of cellulose 204
5.2.3 Pretreatment of lignocellulosic residues 204
5.3 Properties, production and applications of cellulolytic enzymes 210
5.3.1 Properties of cellulases 210
5.3.2 Production of cellulases 213
5.3.3 Properties of hemicellulases 218
5.3.4 Production of xylanases 219
5.3.5 Application of cellulases and xylanases 220
5.4 Bulk chemicals from cellulose and hemicellulose 222
5.4.1 Glucose and xylose 222
5.4.2 Ethanol 228
5.4.3 Acetone-butanol 235
5.4.4 2,3-Butanediol 236
5.5 Future prospects 237
Acknowledgement 238
References 238
6 Use of photosynthetic bacteria for the production of SCP
and chemicals from organic wastes 247
KEN SASAKI, TOHRU TANAKA and SHIRO NAGAI
6.1 Introduction 247
6.1.1 General characteristics of photosynthetic bacteria 247
6.1.2 Application of photosynthetic bacteria for SCP and chemical
production from organic wastes 248
6.2 SCP production from waste 250
6.2.1 Pineapple waste 250
6.2.2 Soybean waste 253
6.2.3 Cassava solid waste 254
6.2.4 Mandarin orange peel 256
6.2.5 Swine and cow dung waste 260
6.2.6 Cell yields and composition of PSB 263
6.3 Vitamin production 266
6.3.1 Vitamin B12 266
6.3.2 Ubiquinone 269
VIJI CONTENTS
6.4 5-Aminolevulinic acid production 270
6.4.1 ALA production from swine waste 272
6.4.2 ALA production from sewage sludge 275
6.4.3 ALA production by aerobic fermentation 276
6.4.4 Applications of ALA 278
6.5 Problems and future prospects 288
6.5.1 Problems 288
6.5.2 Future prospects 289
References 290
7 Utilization of starch industry wastes 293
SUDIP K. RAKSHIT
7.1 Introduction 293
7.2 Nature of cereal and tuber starches 293
7.3 Starch-based industrial products 294
7.3.1 Hydrolytic products and sweeteners 295
7.3.2 Food applications 296
7.3.3 Paper industry applications 298
7.3.4 Fermentative products from starch 299
7.4 Extraction procedures and starch industry waste streams 301
7.4.1 General extraction procedure 301
7.4.2 By-product and effluent streams 303
7.5 Utilization and treatment of starch industry wastes 304
7.5.1 Production of single cell proteins 304
7.5.2 Protein extraction from potato processing 308
7.5.3 Energy recovery from liquid streams 309
7.5.4 Miscellaneous 311
7.6 Conclusion 312
References 312
8 Bioconversion of food processing wastes 316
G.TH. KROYER
8.1 Introduction 316
8.2 Characteristics of food processing wastes 317
8.3 Biotechnological processes in food processing waste treatment 318
8.4 Production of biomass from food processing wastes 319
8.5 Meat and fish processing wastes 322
8.6 Fruit and vegetable processing wastes 324
8.7 Dairy industry wastes 329
8.8 Wastes from the fermentation industry 332
8.9 Conclusion and future outlook 333
References 335
9 Bioconversion of cheese whey to organic acids 342
R.D. TYAGI and D. KLUEPFEL
9.1 Introduction 342
9.2 Production of whey 342
9.3 Pollution control 343
9.4 Current disposal methods of whey 344
9.5 Global utilization of whey 346
9.6 Management strategies 346
9.7 Lactic acid 347
9.7.1 Microorganisms involved in lactic acid fermentation 348
CONTENTS IX
9.7.2 Batch process 349
9.7.3 Continuous process 353
9.7.4 Product inhibition in lactic acid fermentation 357
9.7.5 Immobilized cell process 362
9.8 Acetic acid and propionic acid 367
9.9 Conclusions 371
Acknowledgement 372
References 372
10 Lignocellulosic wastes: biological conversion 376
P. S. CHAHAL and D. S. CHAHAL
10.1 Introduction 376
10.2 Composition and structure of lignocelluloses 377
10.2.1 Cellulose 379
10.2.2 Hemicelluloses 384
10.2.3 Lignin 385
10.2.4 Protein 388
10.2.5 Extraneous materials 388
10.3 Pretreatment of lignocelluloses 388
10.4 Biological conversions 388
10.4.1 Liquid-state fermentation 389
10.4.2 Solid-state fermentation 398
10.5 Utilization of the lignin component of lignocelluloses 409
10.5.1 Ligninase/ligninolytic enzymes 409
10.5.2 Production ofligninases 412
10.6 Problems in bioconversion and future trends 415
References 416
11 Bioconversion of waste water from the pulp and paper
industry 423
K. EL HAIl, V. SACHDEVA and R.D. TYAGI
11.1 Introduction 423
11.2 Source of effluent from the pulp and paper industry 424
11.2.1 Pulping process 425
11.2.2 Bleaching process 426
11.3 Characteristics of waste water from pulp and paper mills 427
11.3.1 Biodegradable part 427
11.3.2 Wood compounds 428
11.3.3 Parts with difficulty in or absence of biodegradability 429
11.3.4 Toxic substances 430
11.4 Treatment technologies 430
11.4.1 Internal treatment 430
11.4.2 External treatment 432
11.5 Biotechnological applications in the pulp and paper industry 434
11.5.1 Pulp manufacture 434
11.5.2 Bleaching of pulp 435
11.6 Evaluation of the potential for effluent use from the pulp and paper
industry in bioconversion 436
11.7 Suitability of spent sulfite liquor for the bioconversion of by-products 437
11.8 Effluent treatment by conversion to by-products 438
11.8.1 Bioconversion of cellulose and lignocellulose materials present
in pulp and paper waste waters 439
11.&.2 Production of ethyl alcohol from cellulosic by-products 441
11.9 Major difficulties in bioconversion 443
x CONTENTS
11.10 Conclusions 444
Acknowledgements 445
References 445
12 Fisheries waste biomass: bioconversion alternatives 449
A.M. MARTIN
12.1 Introduction 449
12.1.1 Antecedents of the recovery of fisheries wastes and by-products 450
12.2 Hydrolytic processes for the recovery of fish protein 452
12.2.1 Enzymatic methods 456
12.2.2 Methods employing microorganisms 457
12.3 Biological methods for the recovery of chitin and chitosan 459
12.4 Biological water treatment of fisheries wastes 463
12.5 Composting of fisheries offal 464
12.6 Other products from fisheries waste biomass 465
12.6.1 Fermentation substrates 465
12.6.2 Enzymes from fish biomass 466
12.6.3 Media for the cultivation of edible mushrooms 467
12.7 Conclusions 469
12.7.1 Present developments 469
12.7.2 Future trends 471
References 471
13 Production of Bacillus thuringiensis biopesticides using
waste materials 480
MARIA DE LOURDES TIRADO MONTIEL, RAJESHWAR D.
TYAGI and JOSE R. VALERO
13.1 Introduction 480
13.2 Characteristics of Bacillus thuringiensis 481
13.2.1 Taxonomy 481
13.2.2 Metabolism 482
13.3 Genetic characteristics 483
13.3.1 Localization and organization of crystal producing genes 483
13.4 Toxicity (crystal-spore complex) 484
13.4.1 Characteristics 484
13.4.2 Synthesis 484
13.4.3 Specificity 485
13.4.4 Mode of action 486
13.5 Effect of medium composition and operation conditions on the
production of crystal-spore complex 487
13.5.1 Temperature and pH 487
13.5.2 Process options for Bt production 488
13.5.3 Aeration - 490
13.5.4 Mineral elements 491
13.5.5 Nitrogen and amino acids 492
13.5.6 Carbon source 493
13.6 Alternative raw materials for Bt biopesticide production 495
13.6.1 Production of Bt subsp. thuringiensis on alternate protein-rich
raw materials 495
13.6.2 Production of Bt subspecies entomocidus, kurstaki, aizawai,
finitimus and galleriae from various raw materials 496
13.6.3 Production of Bt subsp. israelenis (Bti) using different raw materials 500
13.7 Toxicity determinations - 504
13.7.1 Bioassays 505
13.7.2 Tests in vitro 506