Biochemistry for Nurses

296 Pages·2011·13.965 MB·English

by  Uma Bhardwaj, Ravindra Bhardwaj

Biochemistry for Nurses
Uma Bhardwaj
M.Sc., M.Tech., Ph.D.
Senior Director, Arni University (H.P.)
Ravindra Bhardwaj
M.Sc., Ph.D. (JNU), PDF (Columbus, USA)
Vice-Chancellor, Arni University (H.P.)
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Copyright © 2012 Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd
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ISBN 9788131765784
eISBN 9788131798560
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Dedicated to
Mother Earth
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Contents
Preface xv
About the Authors xvii
1 Introduction: Composition and Function of Cell 1
1.1 Introduction to and Importance of Biochemistry 1
1.2 Structure, Composition and Function of Cell 2
1.2.1 Cell Wall 4
1.2.2 Bacterial Cell Wall 4
1.2.3 The Bacterial Cytoplasmic Membrane 6
1.2.4 Fimbrae and Pili 6
1.2.5 Capsules and Slime Layers 7
1.2.6 Flagellum (Singular) 7
1.2.7 Cell Membrane 7
1.2.8 Cytoplasm 8
1.3 Cell Organelles 8
1.3.1 Chloroplasts 8
1.3.2 Vacuole 9
1.3.3 Cytoskeleton 9
1.3.4 Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) 9
1.3.5 Golgi Apparatus 9
1.3.6 Ribosomes 11
1.3.7 Mitochondrion 12
1.3.8 Lysosomes 13
1.3.9 Peroxisome 13
1.3.10 Centrioles 13
1.3.11 Nucleus 13
1.4 Cellular Organization: Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cell 14
1.4.1 Prokaryotic Cells 14
1.4.2 Eukaryotic Cells 15
1.4.3 Similarities Between Prokaryotic Cell and a Eukaryotic Cell 15
1.5 Microscopy 16
1.5.1 Light Microscopy 16
1.5.2 Bright Field Microscopy 17
1.5.3 Dark Field Microscopy 18
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vi | Contents
1.5.4 Phase Contrast Microscopy 18
1.5.5 Differential Interference Contrast Microscopy 19
1.5.6 Fluorescence Microscopy 19
1.5.7 Electron Microscopy 20
Exercises 22
Multiple Choice Questions 23
2 Structure and Functions of Cell Membrane 24
2.1 Fluid–Mosaic Model 24
2.2 Cytoskeleton and Cell–Cell Interaction 26
2.3 Transport Mechanism Across Plasma Membrane 26
2.3.1 Diffusion 27
2.3.2 Osmosis 27
2.3.3 Facilitated Diffusion 27
2.3.4 Membrane Channels 27
2.3.5 Membrane Transporters 28
2.3.6 Active Transport: Na+-K+ Pump 28
2.4 Acid–Base Balance: Blood pH, Buffering and Diagnosis 29
2.4.1 Symptoms and Diagnosis 30
2.5 Chemistry of Water, pH and Buffers 30
2.5.1 Buffers 32
2.5.2 Buffering Action 32
2.6 Water Electrolyte Balance 33
Exercises 35
Multiple Choice Questions 35
3 Composition and Metabolism of Carbohydrates 37
3.1 Introduction to Carbohydrates 37
3.2 Classifi cation of Carbohydrates 38
3.2.1 Monosaccharides 38
3.2.2 Disaccharides 39
3.2.3 Oligosaccharides 39
3.2.4 Polysaccharides 39
3.3 Classifi cation of Monosaccharides 40
3.3.1 Monosaccharides Have Asymmetric Carbon Atom 40
3.3.2 Enantiomer 40
3.3.3 D and L Forms 40
3.3.4 Epimers 40
3.3.5 Cyclic Structure of Monosaccharide 40
3.3.6 Pyranose and Furanose Rings 43
3.3.7 a and b Anomers 43
3.3.8 Isomerism 45
3.3.9 Chemical Properties of Monosaccharide 45
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Contents | vii
3.4 Disaccharides 47
3.4.1 Sucrose 47
3.4.2 Lactose 48
3.4.3 Maltose 48
3.5 Polysaccharides 49
3.5.1 Storage Polysaccharides 49
3.5.2 Structural Polysaccharides 51
3.6 Oligosaccharides 51
3.7 Qualitative Tests for Identifi cation of Carbohydrates 52
3.7.1 Identifying Reducing Sugars 52
3.7.2 Benedict’s Test 52
3.7.3 Barfoed’s Test 52
3.7.4 Flowchart for Classifying an Unknown Carbohydrate 52
3.8 Introduction to Carbohydrate Metabolism 53
3.9 Glycolysis 54
3.9.1 Reactions of Glycolysis Pathway 54
3.9.2 Preparatory Phase of Glycolysis 54
3.9.3 Fates of Pyruvate After Glycolysis 57
3.9.4 Overall Process of Glycolysis 57
3.9.5 Post-glycolytic Processes 58
3.9.6 Anaerobic Respiration 58
3.9.7 Aerobic Respiration 58
3.10 Gluconeogenesis 58
3.10.1 Pathway of Gluconeogenesis 60
3.11 Cori Cycle 60
3.12 Pentose Phosphate Pathway 61
3.13 Citric Acid Cycle 63
3.14 Glycogenesis 63
3.14.1 Steps of Glycogenesis Pathway 63
3.15 Glycogenolysis 66
3.15.1 Function 66
3.15.2 Clinical Signifi cance 66
3.15.3 Reaction 67
3.15.4 Regulation 68
3.16 Regulation of Blood Glucose: Glucose Utilization After a Meal 69
3.16.1 Insulin 69
3.16.2 Maintenance of Blood Glucose Between Meals 70
3.16.3 The Glucagon 70
3.16.4 Supply of Glucose to Exercising Muscle 70
3.16.5 Glycogen Metabolism in Liver and Muscle 70
3.16.6 Role of Glucose 6-phosphatase 70
3.16.7 Conversion of Excess Glucose to Fat 71
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viii | Contents
3.17 Carbohydrate Metabolic Disorder and Diseases, Their Investigations
and Interpretation 71
3.17.1 Diabetes Mellitus 71
3.17.2 Glycogen Storage Diseases 71
3.17.3 Galactosemia 73
3.17.4 Hereditary Fructose Intolerance 74
3.17.5 Mucopolysaccharidoses 74
3.17.6 Disorders of Pyruvate Metabolism 75
3.18 Summary of Carbohydrate Metabolism 76
Exercises 76
Multiple Choice Questions 78
4 Composition and Metabolism of Lipids 79
4.1 Introduction 79
4.1.1 Defi nitions 79
4.2 Classifi cation of Lipids 80
4.2.1 Simple Lipids 80
4.2.2 Compound Lipids 80
4.2.3 Terpenoids and Steroids 80
4.2.4 Derived Lipids 81
4.3 Simple Lipids 81
4.3.1 Structure of Triacylglycerides 81
4.3.2 Fats 81
4.3.3 Waxes 83
4.4 Compound Lipids 83
4.4.1 Basic Structure of Phospholipids 83
4.4.2 Phospholipid Structures 84
4.4.3 Non-phosphorylated Lipids 86
4.5 Terpenoids and Steroids 87
4.5.1 Terpenes 87
4.5.2 Steroids 87
4.5.3 Animal Sterols 87
4.5.4 Bile Acids 89
4.6 Derived Lipids 89
4.6.1 Fatty Acids 89
4.6.2 Eicosanoids 91
4.7 Qualitative Test of Lipids 92
4.8 Metabolism of Fatty Acids 93
4.8.1 Fatty Acids Transport into Mitochondria 93
4.8.2 Fatty Acids Oxidation 94
4.8.3 b-Oxidation of Saturated Fatty Acids 95
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Contents | ix
4.9 Biosynthesis of Fatty Acids 97
4.9.1 Difference Between Fatty Acid Synthesis and b-oxidation Pathways 100
4.9.2 Digestion and Transport of Fatty Acids 100
4.10 Cholesterol Metabolism 100
4.10.1 Biosynthesis of Cholesterol 101
4.10.2 Regulation of Cholesterol Biosynthesis 102
4.10.3 Transport of Cholesterol 104
4.10.4 Catabolism of Cholesterol 104
4.11 Classifi cation of Plasma Lipoproteins and the Systemic Pathway of Lipids 106
4.12 Biosynthesis of Triacylglycerols 107
4.12.1 Triacylglycerol Metabolism in the Intestines, Liver and Mammary Glands 109
4.13 Metabolic Disorder of Lipids 109
Exercises 112
Multiple Choice Questions 114
5 Composition and Metabolism of Amino Acids
and Proteins 117
5.1 Introduction 117
5.1.1 Essential Amino Acids 118
5.1.2 Non-essential Amino Acids 118
5.2 Structure of Amino Acids 118
5.3 Classifi cation of Amino Acids 118
5.4 Amino Acid Metabolism 118
5.5 Biosynthesis of Non-essential Amino Acids 122
5.5.1 Glutamate and Aspartate 122
5.5.2 Glucose–Alanine Cycle 123
5.5.3 Cysteine Biosynthesis 123
5.5.4 Tyrosine Biosynthesis 125
5.5.5 Ornithine and Proline Biosynthesis 126
5.5.6 Serine Biosynthesis 127
5.5.7 Glycine Biosynthesis 127
5.6 Amino Acid Catabolism 127
5.6.1 Glutamine/Glutamate and Asparagine/Aspartate Catabolism 127
5.6.2 Alanine Catabolism 128
5.6.3 Arginine, Ornithine and Proline Catabolism 129
5.6.4 Proline Catabolism is a Reversal of its Synthesis Process 129
5.6.5 Serine Catabolism 129
5.6.6 Threonine Catabolism 129
5.6.7 Glycine Catabolism 130
5.6.8 Cysteine Catabolism 130
5.6.9 Methionine Catabolism 131
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