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Business Information Systems SeriesEditors WitoldAbramowicz ,PoznanUniversityofEconomics,Poznan,Poland HansUlrichBuhl,UniversitätAugsburg,Augsburg,Germany BogdanFranczyk,UniversitätLeipzig,Leipzig,Sachsen,Germany Ulrich Frank, Wirtschaftsinformatik u. Unternehme, Universität Duisburg-Essen, Essen,Germany Currently,virtuallyeveryorganizationis usingbusiness informationsystemsinte- gratinginformationtechnology,businessprocesses,andpeople.Withtheadventof newtechnologiesandnewbusinessopportunitiesthatarise(e.g.electronicmarkets), designinganddevelopinginformationsystemsthatwouldbe in line with the long term strategy of companies and that would efficiently support their core business processes, becomes even a more complex and difficult task. In addition, business information systems in modern companies need to evolve and adapt to changes occurringbothinside as wellas outside an organization.Therefore,a broadrange ofissuessuchasnewbusinessrequirements(includingsocietalandlegalaspects), newmarketmechanismsandbusinessmodels,aswellasnewparadigmsandsystem architectures,needtobeconsidered.The“SpringerSeriesonBusinessInformation Systems” targets high quality research monographs, texts and contributed books covering the vast field of business information processing and applications in variousdomains.Itfocusesparticularlyonfosteringtheexchangeontheoreticaland practicalaspectsofthedesignanddevelopment,implementationandapplicationof businessinformationsystems,basedoninnovativeconcepts.Thebookseriesisnot onlyaimedatresearchersandstudents,butalsoatinformationsystemprofessionals inindustry,commerce,andpublicadministration,whoareinterestedinnewideason businessinformationsystems.Thus,withthisseriesweestablishauniqueplatform fordesignscienceorientedresearchandthetechnologyandeconomicallyoriented scientificcommunity,tryingtobridgethegapbetweentheoreticalfoundationsand realworldrequirements. Krzysztof We˛cel Big, Open and Linked Data Effects and Value for the Economy KrzysztofWe˛cel DepartmentofInformationSystems Poznan´ UniversityofEconomics andBusiness Poznan´,Poland ISSN2662-1797 ISSN2662-1800 (electronic) BusinessInformationSystems ISBN978-3-031-07146-1 ISBN978-3-031-07147-8 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-07147-8 ©TheEditor(s)(ifapplicable)andTheAuthor(s),underexclusivelicensetoSpringerNatureSwitzerland AG2022 Thisworkissubjecttocopyright.AllrightsaresolelyandexclusivelylicensedbythePublisher,whether thewhole orpart ofthematerial isconcerned, specifically therights oftranslation, reprinting, reuse ofillustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproductiononmicrofilmsorinanyotherphysicalway,and transmissionorinformationstorageandretrieval,electronicadaptation,computersoftware,orbysimilar ordissimilarmethodologynowknownorhereafterdeveloped. Theuseofgeneraldescriptivenames,registerednames,trademarks,servicemarks,etc.inthispublication doesnotimply,evenintheabsenceofaspecificstatement,thatsuchnamesareexemptfromtherelevant protectivelawsandregulationsandthereforefreeforgeneraluse. Thepublisher,theauthors,andtheeditorsaresafetoassumethattheadviceandinformationinthisbook arebelievedtobetrueandaccurateatthedateofpublication.Neitherthepublishernortheauthorsor theeditorsgiveawarranty,expressedorimplied,withrespecttothematerialcontainedhereinorforany errorsoromissionsthatmayhavebeenmade.Thepublisherremainsneutralwithregardtojurisdictional claimsinpublishedmapsandinstitutionalaffiliations. ThisSpringerimprintispublishedbytheregisteredcompanySpringerNatureSwitzerlandAG Theregisteredcompanyaddressis:Gewerbestrasse11,6330Cham,Switzerland To mywifeAnnaanddaughterKornelia Contents 1 Introduction .................................................................. 1 1.1 BackgroundandMotivation ........................................... 1 1.2 ObjectivesandResearchHypotheses.................................. 2 1.3 StructureoftheBook ................................................... 4 Reference ..................................................................... 5 2 OpenDataasanEconomic,Political,andTechnicalPhenomenon .... 7 2.1 Introduction ............................................................. 7 2.2 OpenDataMovement .................................................. 8 2.2.1 OpenDataDefinition .......................................... 9 2.2.2 OpenGovernmentDataPrinciples ............................ 11 2.2.3 OpenDataasInfrastructure ................................... 14 2.3 OpenDataInitiatives ................................................... 14 2.3.1 EuropeanDataEconomy ...................................... 15 2.3.2 InternationalActivities ......................................... 16 2.4 OpenDataSupply ...................................................... 18 2.4.1 ObligationtoProvideInformation ............................ 18 2.4.2 OpenGovernmentDataPublishing ........................... 19 2.5 AdoptionofOpenData ................................................ 22 2.5.1 OpenDataComplexity ........................................ 23 2.5.2 BarriersforAdoption .......................................... 24 2.6 MacroeconomicInformation........................................... 27 2.6.1 StatisticalData ................................................. 28 2.6.2 IndustryClassifications ........................................ 29 2.6.3 OpenGeographicalData ....................................... 30 2.7 Summary ................................................................ 31 References .................................................................... 31 3 LinkedDataforEnrichmentofDataAssets.............................. 35 3.1 Introduction ............................................................. 35 3.2 LinkedDataDefinition ................................................. 36 3.2.1 Definition ....................................................... 36 vii viii Contents 3.2.2 FeaturesofLinkedData ....................................... 37 3.2.3 LinkedDataLifeCycles ....................................... 38 3.2.4 LinkedDataContribution ...................................... 42 3.3 LinkedDataAssetsforReuse ......................................... 43 3.3.1 PeopleandOrganizations ...................................... 43 3.3.2 VocabulariesforE-Business ................................... 45 3.3.3 GeospatialData ................................................ 46 3.4 ContextsandDisambiguation.......................................... 47 3.4.1 BackgroundKnowledge ....................................... 48 3.4.2 ContextualOntologies ......................................... 50 3.5 QualityofData ......................................................... 51 3.5.1 ClassificationofQualityIssues ................................ 52 3.5.2 DataCurationandRepair ...................................... 55 3.6 DiscoverabilityofDatasets ............................................ 55 3.6.1 DataProfiling .................................................. 56 3.6.2 DatasetAnnotationandCataloging ........................... 58 3.6.3 DiscoveryofVocabulary ....................................... 59 3.6.4 VocabulariesforDescriptionofDatasets ..................... 61 3.7 Summary ................................................................ 65 References .................................................................... 66 4 BigDataOrganizationChallenge.......................................... 73 4.1 Introduction ............................................................. 73 4.2 ContemporarySolutionsforDataOrganization ...................... 74 4.2.1 TypesofDatainOrganizations ................................ 74 4.2.2 Time,Value,andAnalytics .................................... 77 4.3 BigDataDefinition ..................................................... 79 4.4 TowardsBigDataUnderstanding ..................................... 80 4.4.1 BigDataIssues ................................................. 80 4.4.2 BigDataGranularityandSelf-Similarity ..................... 82 4.4.3 Privacy,Ethical,andSocialIssues ............................ 85 4.4.4 VisualizationandBigData .................................... 86 4.5 DataResources ......................................................... 87 4.5.1 BigVersusOpen ............................................... 87 4.5.2 BigDataandSemantics ....................................... 88 4.5.3 AlternativeData ................................................ 89 4.6 DataUnificationChallenge ............................................ 89 4.6.1 ExternalDataIntegration ...................................... 90 4.6.2 WiigKnowledgeManagementModel ........................ 91 4.6.3 NewTheoryofData ........................................... 92 4.6.4 VarietyandDiscoverability .................................... 94 4.7 TheModelforLinked-Data-BasedUnificationofData .............. 94 4.7.1 GeneralBenefitsofLinkedData .............................. 95 4.7.2 EmergingStructuring .......................................... 95 4.7.3 SpecificContributionofLinkedData ......................... 96 Contents ix 4.7.4 ValidityoftheModel .......................................... 98 4.8 ModernEnterpriseSolutionsLeveragingLinkedData ............... 100 4.8.1 DataGovernance ............................................... 101 4.8.2 DataLakes ...................................................... 102 4.8.3 SemanticCompliance .......................................... 104 4.8.4 EnterpriseKnowledgeGraphs ................................. 105 4.9 Summary ................................................................ 106 References .................................................................... 107 5 MacroeconomicAspectsofDataValue.................................... 113 5.1 Introduction ............................................................. 113 5.2 MacroeconomicImpact ................................................ 114 5.2.1 StatisticsCollected ............................................. 114 5.2.2 PublicSectorInformation ..................................... 116 5.2.3 BenefitsbySectors ............................................. 117 5.2.4 DataasInfrastructuralResource .............................. 119 5.2.5 Costs,Investments,andPricing ............................... 120 5.3 DirectValue ............................................................. 122 5.3.1 ValueofInformation ........................................... 122 5.3.2 ValueofBigData .............................................. 123 5.3.3 ValueofOpenData ............................................ 125 5.3.4 ValueofLinkedData .......................................... 127 5.3.5 ValueofAlternativeData ...................................... 128 5.4 MultiplierEffects ....................................................... 129 5.4.1 ReturnstoScaleandReturnstoScope ........................ 129 5.4.2 NetworkEffectsandTwo-SidedMarkets ..................... 130 5.4.3 DisruptiveInnovation .......................................... 132 5.5 Summary ................................................................ 134 References .................................................................... 135 6 MicroeconomicAspectsofDataValue..................................... 139 6.1 Introduction ............................................................. 139 6.2 Stakeholders ............................................................ 139 6.2.1 OpenDataEcosystem .......................................... 140 6.2.2 DemandandSupply............................................ 147 6.2.3 JointProduction ................................................ 151 6.3 MutualBenefits ......................................................... 152 6.3.1 CommunityInvolvement ...................................... 153 6.3.2 ValueNetworks ................................................ 155 6.3.3 Data-SharingEconomy ........................................ 156 6.4 DataOwnership ........................................................ 158 6.4.1 AccesstoData .................................................. 159 6.4.2 OwnershipRoles ............................................... 160 6.4.3 OpenAlgorithms ............................................... 161 x Contents 6.5 EconomicsofPersonalDataandPrivacy ............................. 163 6.5.1 RoleofRegulations ............................................ 163 6.5.2 SecureSharingofInformation ................................ 164 6.5.3 ValueofCustomerData ....................................... 165 6.5.4 Benefits,Costs,andExternalitiesofDisclosedData ......... 166 6.6 InnovationasValue ..................................................... 167 6.6.1 AnalyticsasaProduct ......................................... 168 6.6.2 Data-DrivenInnovation ........................................ 169 6.6.3 OpenInnovation................................................ 170 6.7 Summary ................................................................ 174 References .................................................................... 175 7 BusinessModelsforData ................................................... 181 7.1 Introduction ............................................................. 181 7.2 DigitalDisruptionandSocialBusinessTransformation.............. 182 7.3 BusinessModelsResearch ............................................. 183 7.3.1 Definition ....................................................... 183 7.3.2 Frameworks .................................................... 184 7.3.3 BusinessModelInnovationandEvolution.................... 186 7.4 LiteratureReviewMethodology ....................................... 187 7.4.1 ResearchObjectives ............................................ 187 7.4.2 DataCollectionandSearchProcess ........................... 187 7.4.3 ResultsOverview .............................................. 190 7.5 AnalysisofBusinessModelComponents............................. 190 7.5.1 ValueCreation .................................................. 190 7.5.2 ValueTransfer .................................................. 193 7.5.3 ValueCapture .................................................. 194 7.6 AnalysisofRelevantBusinessModels ................................ 195 7.6.1 BusinessModelsforDataAssets .............................. 195 7.6.2 BusinessModelsandtheWeb ................................. 197 7.6.3 BusinessModelsforLinkedData ............................. 199 7.7 Discussion .............................................................. 202 7.7.1 StudyofBusinessModels ..................................... 203 7.7.2 Real-WorldApplications ...................................... 204 7.7.3 IntellectualPropertyIssues .................................... 204 7.7.4 MarketsandEcosystems ....................................... 205 7.8 Summary ................................................................ 206 References .................................................................... 207 8 GeographicalProfilingwithLinkedData................................. 215 8.1 Introduction ............................................................. 215 8.2 SpatialInformation ..................................................... 216 8.3 MobileData ............................................................. 217 8.4 GeographicalLinkedData-BasedProfiling ........................... 220 8.4.1 CharacteristicsofBaseTransceiverStations ................. 221 8.4.2 TF-IDFWeightingSchema .................................... 225