Between Comedy and Kitsch

20 Pages·2015·0.08 MB·English

by  Mark Gallagher

Between Comedy and Kitsch: Kitano's
Zatoichi and Kurosawa's Traditions of
"Jidaigeki" Comedies
Rie Karatsu, Massey University, New Zealand
Introduction
If Imake afilm starringKitano,it will beZatoichi.(AkiraKurosawa,quotedinSugimura,
2003: 96)
The"jidaigeki,"orJapanesehistorical drama,has seenaresurgenceinrecent years, fuelled
byinterest inthegenre andactionbyJapaneseandWesterndirectors. Films suchas Kill Bill:
Vol.1andVol.2(2003and2004)andTheLast Samurai (2003),haveproducedinteresting
andpopularfilms borrowingfrom thestyle andconventions createdmuchearlierinthe
development ofJapanese jidaigeki films. Anysamurai film,whethermadeinoroutside
Japan,undoubtedlydraws comparisons withAkiraKurosawa's samurai classics. Innoneof
theseworks is recognitionofaspecificcultural context moreimportant thaninTakeshi
Kitano's recent adaptationoftheoriginal Zatoichi (1962).
Set innineteenth-centuryJapan,Kitano's Zatoichi (2003)tells thestoryof Ichi (Takeshi
Kitano); ablind,wanderingmasseurwitha gamblingproblem andsword-fightingskills. Ichi
wanders intoa remotemountaintownruledbycorrupt officials and a gangofrough
mobsters. Whenhebefriends awidow(Michiyo Ookuso)andhernephew Shinkichi
(GadarukanaruTaka),a dice gambler,helearns that thetownis inthemiddleofamassive
gangwarinwhichtwomobbosses (Saburo Ishikuraand IttokuKishibe)laywastetothe
competitionwiththehelpofthehighlyskilledroninnamedHattori (AsanoTadanobu).
Hattori takes ajobas an assassinforoneofthese ganglords inordertopayfortreatment for
his sickwife.Meanwhile, Ichi meets and attempts tohelptwogeisha assassins, Okinuand
Osei (YukoDaikeandDaigoro Tachibana),whoseekrevengeonthe criminals who
slaughteredtheir family. Ichi eventuallyfinds himselfinconflict withHattori,and
demonstrates thevirtues oftrainingandhumilityinequal measures indespatchingthe
arrogant forces ofwickedness afflictingthelives ofthosehecares for.Havingdoneso, he
continues his wandering, not unlikeanancient versionofShane(1953).
Zatoichi is Kitano's biggest domesticbox-officesuccess todate, witharoundtwomillion
Japanesetheatre admissions. LikeKurosawa,Kitanohas hadmoresuccess abroadthanin
Japan.Foreignaudiences begantotakenoticeof Kitanoafterthe1993releaseofSonatine.
Hana-bi (1997)pavedhis status internationallyas oneoftheforemost Japanesefilmmakers
ofhis time.For years, Kitano's largest audiencehadbeentheforeignhighbrowornon-
mainstream audience. Zatoichi was consciouslytargetedat a younger,moremainstream
Japaneseaudience,forthefirst timetakingadvantageofmovingcameras as opposedtohis
morecharacteristicallystaticmethodtotheaction.
Thefilm was bothacommercial and critical success; it wonseveral international film
awards, includingtheSilver Lion(Special Director's Award)at thesixtiethVenice Film
Festival.Thesuccess recalls themoment whenJapanesecinemafirst hit international
headlines, when AkiraKurosawawontheGold Lionat Venicein1950withRashomon,
deconstructingthecode ofthejidaigeki genre.Needless tosay,Kurosawa's classics
influencednot onlyKitano's remake,but also the veryZatoichi original.Kurosawa's classics
influencedthedirector, Kenji Misumi,infilmingtheoriginal Zatoichi.Misumi madean
intensivestudyofYojimbo(1961),SevenSamurai (1954)andotherKurosawasamurai
classics. Misumi assembles somekineticandvisceral elements ofKurosawa's cinematic
actions andviolence,but hedoes so toreassureaudiences and eradicatedifficulty.Kitano's
remakeis bothparodyandhomagetothereassuringaesthetics oftheoriginal Zatoichi.
Inthis paper, Icontendthat Kitanooffers us avivid,comprehensive exampleofhowa
Japaneseartist cantranslatebothKurosawa's classics andthemythofZatoichi,reflectingon
contemporaryJapaneseconcerns about the gapbetween youthandtheirprecedinggeneration.
Tobringabout this achievement,Kitanodeploys boththecomedyinheritedfrom Kurosawa
andtheaesthetics ofkitschtranslatedfrom theoriginal Zatoichi.Thepoints ofreferencein
this paperarenot onlydividedbetween Kurosawa andKitano,but also triangulated across
thecomic,popularand critical. Inordertomeet thetriangularpoints ofreference, Iwill first
tracehow Kurosawa's classics haveinfluencedthe original Zatoichi,before dealingwith
Kitano's adaptation.
Dividedintotwoparts, Part Iofthis article examines thereceptions ofKitano's Zatoichi in
ordertoexplorehowtheyreflect Japanesesocial anxieties causedbythe generation gap.Part
IIexamines howKurosawa's classics haveinfluencedtheoriginal Zatoichi. Iarguethat the
original Zatoichi assembles someofthekineticandvisceral elements ofKurosawa's classics,
but it does so tosoftenthe"facts oflifeanddeath." Ipresent arguments whichclaim that the
original Zatoichi replacedKurosawa's ethicand aestheticgoals withcommercial ends,
namelycynicism,fetishism andiconicity, anamalgamationofwhichis regardedas ethically
andaestheticallyimmature.Part IIIdiscusses Kitano's adaptationoftheoriginal Zatoichi,and
Kurosawa's jidaigeki comedies, inparticularthosewith"happyendings." Amongthem are
TheMen WhoTreadontheTiger's Tail (1945),SevenSamurai,TheHidden Fortress (1958),
Yojimbo,andSanjuro (1962).Kitano's Zatoichi,it will beargued,draws onthecomiccode
that his predecessor,Kurosawaexploredinhis earlyjidaigeki. LikeKurosawa,Kitano
explores thebalancebetweenthefacts oflifeand death,thethemeofindividual andsociety,
therelationshipbetween audience andthefilm. It shouldbenoted,however,that Kitano
reinforces non-authenticity,fragmentationandrepetition,andplaces comedyinaquite
different context from Kurosawa. Ishall furtherarguethat Kitanoadopts Kurosawa's critical
comedywithout discardingthe aesthetics ofkitschfrom theoriginal Zatoichi.Thus,Kitano
bothreflects and resists Kurosawa's comictraditions simultaneously.
1.TwoGenerations andtheReceptions of Kitano's Zatoichi
Kitano's Zatoichi's domesticcommercial success was unexpectedconsideringthat the
jidaigeki movieseems tohavefallenout offavour withJapan's youngaudienceand
jidaigeki's popularityhas tailedoffdramaticallysinceits heydayoverthirtyyears ago.Today,
as a genre,jidaigeki is as deeplyunfashionableas theWesternmoviehas beenperceivedin
America.NHK's (NipponHoso Kyokai,Japan's publicbroadcaster)Sundaynight historical
drama,Yoshitsune(2005),failedtoinvigoratethe jidaigeki's decliningpopularity,despite a
desperateeffort from NHKtoget a youngaudiencebycastingapopstarin theleadingrole.
Amajorityofjidaigeki fans areoftheolder generation.Forthis oldergeneration,theoriginal
Zatoichi represents what jidaigeki shouldbelike.
Theoriginal Zatoichi franchisehas its roots inthestories ofwriterKanShimozawa,andwas
first brought tothesilver screeninthe1962 film entitledZatoichi Monogatari,starring
ShintaroKatsu anddirectedbyKenji Misumi. Ichi is ablindwanderingswordsmanwho
disguises himselfas amasseurandoccasionallyhires out his skilful sword-fightingservices
tovarious clans inordertomakealiving.Thecharacterof Ichi provedhighlypopular,
repeatedbyKatsu inthe original series. Theoriginal Zatoichi turnedout to beoneofthe
longest runningseries inthehistoryofjidaigeki. It consists oftwenty-six films andone
hundredTVepisodes spanningalmost threedecades (1962-1989).
Kitano's Zatoichi (2003) is acompletelydifferent styleineveryconceivablewayfrom the
original. It is interestingtonotethat Kitano's first referencetotheoriginal Zatoichi appeared
as atenminuteparodysequenceinhis 1995comedyGettingAny?,inwhichhelampooned
thecharacterof Ichi.AlthoughKitanohadlittleinterest inthis characterotherthanas a foil
foraparody,helaterrevealedthat his affectionforthecharacterof Ichi didhaveaplacein
his creativity. His 2003remakewas afresh takeonthecharacterof Ichi.
Theoriginal characterof Ichi has beenvirtuallysynonymous withthelate Katsu. Some
unfamiliarityof Kitano's remaketroubledthejidaigeki fans, inparticularthoseoftheoriginal
Zatoichi,whileit enjoyedapositivereceptionfrom a youngeraudiencewhoarenot jidaigeki
fans. AccordingtoAsian film scholar,Tatsu Aoki:
Katsu freaks areeverywhereinJapan,becausehe's oneofthebiggest heroes
fortheolder generation.Theyfelt this roleprettymuchbelongedtoShintaro
Katsu anddidn't want to see Ichi playedbyadifferent actor. Italkto younger
peoplenow,whokindof likethis newZatoichi.Weareofthe generationto
say, "No,this is not thereal thing,"but tothem therewasn't anyreal thingto
beginwith.Sowesplit ouropiniononthat.(Hart, 2004)
Thejidaigeki convention representedintheoriginal Zatoichi does not appeal tothe younger
generation.Jidaigeki is saddledwiththeconventions andstereotypes, formulas andclichés
whichwereestablishedinpostwarJapan.All theseare codifiedintothejidaigeki genre.
Jidaigeki has epitomisedJapanesenational identity, its masculinepast and thedialecticofthe
relationbetweenindividual andsociety,modern andtraditional. Intoday's Japan,these
boundaries arebecomingincreasinglyblurred,and what has emergedis the fashionablecult
ofcool mixedwithindividualism.Jidaigeki is what Japanese youngpeople cometoregardas
"oyaji-kusai," "jiji-kusai," "toshiyori-kusai," "ossan-kusai" (meaning"oldfashioned"),
"sekkyo-kusai" (preachy),"shibai-kusai,"and "engi gakusai"(overacting/artificial)."Kusai"
(smell)is herereferringtoemotionally-chargedatmosphere.
ToJapanese youngpeople,thejidaigeki offers incongruity. It is preciselybecausethecult of
cool has takenroot with Japanese youth.Theunaffected andunaffectingcultureis
representedintheslang, thedespised"uzai,"an adjectivefor youngpeopletodescribeolder
peoplewhoare "uncool." TheJapanese youngaudiencecansit backandbe amusedrather
thanbeingaffectivelyinvolved. Intoday's Japan,indeed,theverynotionofanembodied
engagement is eschewed. ThechallengeKitanohas torespond tois theradical detachment of
thepostmodernkind,different from what Kurosawadidinhis time. Incontrast toKurosawa,
whochallengedthepostwarcollectiveconformityandsentimentality,Kitanotackles the
contemporarycontext inwhichthecult ofcool mixedwithindividualism imposes ethics, and
inwhichsocietyis undervalued.
Thecurrent Japanesecultural shift totheovervaluationofindividualism,theundervaluation
ofthesocietyis caricaturedbyKitano's Zatoichi.Kitano's concernis expressedinoneofhis
books, inwhichKitanocriticises Japanese youngpeople's unconditional worshipofNorth
Americanindividualism as thebest policytoemulatewithout consideringits historical
background.TheJapaneseconceptualisationof"individualism"is, inhis view,merely"me-
ism."(Kitano,1998: 177)AccordingtoKitano what has emergedfull-blownintoday's Japan
is thestateof"super-free."(Kitano,2003a: 204)
Suchacultural andsocial climateprovides someinsight intohowheapproachedupdatingthe
Zatoichi legendforcontemporaryyoungaudiences. Kitanotackles this generational
incongruityandmisunderstandinginanewJapan, whichis quitedifferent from theJapanof
postwardecades. Kitano creates acomedyofmisunderstandingwiththemobsterwho,inthe
enthusiasm toattack Ichi, draws his swordwithsuchforceit cuts his comrade's arm standing
next tohim; themerchants whowant totest theirnewswordonapassing Ichi,suffersimilar
consequences; "theidiot son ofaneighbour,"asemi-nakedlunaticmanwithaspearwho
runs around yellingandbumpingintothings. Thesescenes caricaturethe generational
malfunctioningof communication.Theycouldalsoalludetotheoldgeneration's perception
that youngpeopleareso self-absorbedthat theyarenot abletofocus ontheirsurroundingand
theimpact oftheiractions.
Themost hilarious scene ofmisunderstandinginvolves theformationtrainingsequencein
whichShinkichi attempts totrainagroupofneighbours intheart ofcombat withswords,
whilethreemenwindup takingturns beatingShinkichi ontheheadratherthanstrikinghis
sword.This sceneis reminiscent ofthe younggeneration's perceptionthat theoldgeneration
is obsessedwitharchaicritual androutine.Kitano's success lies inhis abilitytocomically
deal withthe generational incongruitythat prevails incontemporaryJapan. Playful
anachronism canbefoundeverywhere: not inthe least byrepresentingIchi withblondehair
andtapdancing.
Comedyanddancedecentremaincharacters and thenarrativeeffect.That is tosay,comedy
anddancearelocatedbeyondtheprimacyofnarrativeordiegesis, andthe limit ofrealist
film.Comedyanddance remainasourceof audiencefascinationthat competedirectlywith
plot andcharacterdevelopment.Comedyanddancedevelopinsufficient numberand
demandenoughinterest that thesecomicanddancedetails ceasetobeservants ofthe
narrative.Theyinstead assumeagreateraffective chargethanthenarrative withinwhichthey
areembedded. It is Kitano's wayofembeddingthe moderninsidethetraditional.Suchan
extensiveuseofcomedyanddanceis absent intheoriginal Zatoichi,as it is strictlywithin
thescopeofthe genericconventions ofrealist jidaigeki, andits dominant toneis cynicism. In
thefollowingsection, Icontendthat theoriginal Zatoichi,incomparison toKurosawa's films,
is immaturecynicism,whichrenders thefilm ethicallyandaestheticallyimbalanced.
2.1Critical vs. Popular:From Kurosawa's ComedytotheCynicismof theOriginal
Zatoichi
"Yanatosei dana" (It is a terribleworld)is a catch phraseof Ichi,theprotagonist ofthe
original Zatoichi. Ichi,a wanderer,has asenseof justice,protects theweak,andcriticises
societyfrom anoutsider's "objective"point-of-view. Ichi,intheoriginal Zatoichi,is a
cynical,victimisedthinker.As Stuart Kaminskypoints out,therehas been atraditionof
physical deformityinpostwarjidaigeki resultingfrom thedisgraceofdefeat (Kaminsky,
1972: 313). Ichi is anexampleofsuchavictimisedhero; discriminated,shunnedand
ridiculedbecauseofhis disability.Heis treatedlikeanoutcast ineverytownhevisits. Like
thesamurai inajidaigeki,andthe gunmaninawesternmovie, Ichi is drivenbyadesirefor
revenge.[1] What makes Ichi aherois that heis always onestepaheadofsociety: Theblind
man"sees"muchmorethanthosewhohaveperfect eyesight. Theoriginal Zatoichi invokes
andsatisfies audienceexpectations, allowinganuncritical identificationwith Ichi.
Theoriginal Zatoichi emphasisedliberal-individuals andtheirvalues tosuchadegreethat the
film departedfrom jidaigeki traditionbecausejidaigeki traditionallyshowedthesamurai
actingas part of a group. Thehugecommercial appeal oftheoriginal Zatoichi is predicated
onthegrowingbeliefinliberal-individualist values inpostwarJapan.DavidDesserpositions
theoriginal Zatoichi as a SwordFilm,asubgenre ofjidaigeki inhis essay, "Towarda
Structural Analysis ofthePostwarSamurai Film." Desserstates:
TheSwordFilm,as definedhere,begins withKurosawa's Yojimbo(1961).
Althoughtypicallydescribedas a "JapaneseWestern,"Yojimbohas muchin
commonwithAmerican gangsterfilms, hardlysurprising…Theintroduction
ofelements from theWesterns and gangster genres (withtheirverydifferent
mythologies)marks achangeinthemythos ofthe Samurai Film.(Desser,
1992: 156)
Inneworpostwarjidaigeki,liberal-individualism has beendefinedas apowerful cultural
drive.Traditional orprewarjidaigeki shares thecharacteristics observedbyDesser as "the
overvaluationofsociety, theundervaluationofthe individual."(Desser,1992: 162)Darrell
Davis draws attentiontotheeffects of government interventiononprewarjidaigeki andits
changes towardnationalisticcollectivism between the years of1936-41.He has dubbedthe
prewarjidaigeki the "monumental style."Thestyleis best exemplifiedinGenroku
Chushingura (1941),whichprizes loyaltytoone's lordoverall othervirtues (Davis, 1996:
131).
Theoriginal Zatoichi reversedthis, insteademphasisingtheundervaluationofsociety,the
overvaluationoftheindividual. Initially,thetraditional jidaigeki was thedominant form of
samurai dramabut,with thenewwaveofdirectors inthe1950s and1960s, therewas ashift
infocus towards thenew jidaigeki withmorallyambiguous, troubledand, at times,
narcissisticheroes/anti-heroes.
Needless tosay,AkiraKurosawa's Yojimbohelpedfreethesamurai genre from traditional
collectivemorality.Hepopularisedthefigureofthe"ronin"whomockedconformityand
compliance.Kurosawa's jidaigeki were all created inahistorical context inwhichauthority
stronglyimposes ethics andmorals uponanindividual.Disturbedbythefanatical militarism
present inJapanduringWorldWar II, andruthless postwarcapitalism,Kurosawa aimedto
reshapeJapanesesocietyforideals ofindividual autonomy.As examinedbyStephenPrince
(1991),Kurosawaforged apoliticallycommitted model offilmmaking,andparticipatedas a
filmmakerinthetasks of social reconstruction.TheimageofToshiroMifuneonthe
watchtowerinYojimbo,watchingtheconflicts belowwithamuseddetachment,is anapt
metaphorforindividual autonomy.Princerefers totheethics ofYojimboas"oneofisolation,
acelebrationofalienation."(Prince,1991: 235) Likeatypical newjidaigeki,Kurosawa's
Yojimboandits follow-up,Sanjuro,mocktheover-valuationplacedon "bushido"(theWay
ofSamurai)andthesamurai's loyaltytothe clan as beingmoresignificant thanlifeitself.
Despitehis emphasis ontheliberal-individual,Kurosawamaintains thecompositionand
balanceofcontrasts withsociety,inparticularthroughtheuseofcomedy. InYojimbo,the
playful musicfittingthe scruffyheroscratchinghis uncleanhead,thedogtrottingwitha
humanhandinits mouth,andfoolish villains, all providetheaudiencewith thesignificant
moodofasometimes savagecomedy. In Sanjuro,muchofthehumouremerges from the
contrast betweenMifune's shabbysamurai,always askingformoney,andhis incongruity
withthestereotypicallynoble,virtuous behaviour ofnineclean-cut samurai andtwogenteel
ladies.
Kurosawamentions inaninterviewthat heensures that comedyis activated inbalancewith
dramatictensioninhis film (Shibutani,1993: 26).Comedyis asignificant means bywhich
Kurosawa creates a certainmoral equilibrium ofpowerbetweenindividual andsociety,life
anddeath.
Kurosawa's first jidaigeki,TheMen WhoTreadon theTiger's Tail,is acomedyandan
adaptationofa famous medieval Japanesetalethat became a "kabuki"play, Kanjincho.[2]
Thefilm was shot under thestrict regulations oftheJapanesemilitaryauthorityduringWorld
War II,andtheAmericanauthorityduringthe earlydays of Americanoccupation.Thestory
relates toYoshitsune(1159-1189),whois afugitivefrom Yoritomo.Kanjinchotells thestory
ofBenkei's desperateattempt toprotect his younglordYoshitsunebydisguisinghim as his
servant andbeatinghim,inordertopass thebarrierat Atakawhichis guardedbyanofficer.
Kurosawa criticises the waymodernkabuki sentimentallyrationalises bushido,includingits
rigidsenseofloyaltyand duty.Kurosawa comments onhis claim that Kanjinchoas amodern
kabuki exposes unnecessarysentimentality:
Forexample,out ofsight ofthebarrier,Yoshitsunethanks Benkei forhis
resourcefulness. Burstingintotears, Benkei excessivelyapologizes tohis lord
forwhat hehadtodotofulfil his duty. Ifeel that thereis somethingwrong
about pushingsentimentalityforwardinthis manner.(Shibutani,1993: 46)
In Kurosawa's adaptation,thekabuki repertoireof feudal devotionwas parodiedas amusical
comedy.Challengingdomesticviewers'familiaritywiththekabuki format, Kurosawa creates
anewroleoftheporteras fool.As aresult,thefilm was theobject ofdoublecensorships:
Japanesecensors accused him oftrivialisinganauthentichistorical drama, andpostponedthe
releaseofthefilm. Ironically,theAmerican Occupationauthorityalso delayedthefilm's
release,becausetheyperceivedthat thefilm promotedafeudalisticloyalty. Thefilm finally
reachedcinemas in1952,seven years afterits completion.Theporter's constant comic
presenceis Kurosawa's ingenious wayofbothplayfullymockingthedeadly-serious
proceedings, andallowingthe audiencetoparticipateandwitness the actionthroughhis eyes.
Theporteris bothaninsiderandanoutsider; aninsiderinthat heis acharacterinthefilm,an
outsiderinthat hedoes not quiteunderstandthemeaningofsamurai conventions. Theporter
plays an essential role as acomiccharactercaught betwixt andbetween,"neithertheone
thingnortheother." Bymakingtheporterplaytheroleofthe catalyst forthethreshold
between "play" and "real,"Kurosawastimulates his audience's critical self-reflexivity.
SuchanartistichomagetocomedygivenbyKurosawatohis jidaigeki is absent inthe
original Zatoichi.Thedirector,Misumi,onlymakes ahalf-heartedeffort in humour.For
example,Katsu stumbles at thebeginningoftheoriginal Zatoichi.As thetoneofthecomedy
is attemptedbut is not establishedsuccessfully,the audiencedonot findthis scenefunny.
Despitesomeawkwardhumorous scenes andslapsticktouches likethis example,comedy
neverplays anysignificant roleinMisumi's original Zatoichi.Theoverall toneoftheoriginal
Zatoichi is staticcynicism,whichreplacedKurosawa's comicdynamism andintegrity.
Cynicism intheoriginal Zatoichi is particularlyevident inthescenes wheretheprotagonist
overhears thevillains'secret conversationinvolvingtheirdoubts and fears overtheeffective
usefulness ofablindswordsmanintheupcomingwarwitharival gang.When Ichi
eavesdrops onvillains'conversation,confronts them and gives aspeechof victimisation,he
has ahighlyironictone. Incontrast,asimilarsceneinKurosawa's Yojimbohas aclear
playful andcomictone: TheswordsmanplayedbyMifunelistens tothevillains plottinghis
deathwithjocularflippancy.
WhileKurosawa's Yojimbohas acomictone,the original Zatoichi is predominatedbyatone
ofcynicism.Theshift from comedyto cynicism clarifies what differentiates Kurosawa's
jidaigeki from theoriginal Zatoichi.Theoriginal Zatoichi inheritedtheliberal-individualist
dimensionofKurosawa, byadaptingtheimageof theanti-herowanderer.Theindividual-
orientedKurosawa's stylewas persuasiveintheoriginal Zatoichi,even as thecomical and
balancingintegrityofKurosawa's filmmakingwas not.Theoriginal Zatoichi is acynical
indictment ofthesociety, andtheover relianceon theindividual destabilisingthebalanceof
work.
2.2Comedyto Kitsch Abuse
Theoriginal Zatoichi replacedKurosawa's cinematicgoals witha further commercial end,
namelynot onlycynicism,but also kitschabuse.Inhis influential 1939article"Avant-Garde
andKitsch,"Clement Greenbergdefines kitsch as "vicarious experience andfaked
sensation."(Greenberg,1965: 10)HedefinedkitschbroadlytoincludeHollywoodmovies,
jazz,advertising,commercial illustration--all of whichare generallyregardednowas
popularculture.What maymarkkitsch as low-brow,especiallyincinema,is theperception
that kitschis aform ofpopulardiscoursethat aim primarilyforaphysical ratherthan an
intellectual response.Kitschcreates amoodofintimacy, andcalls forthespectator's bodily,
affectiveimmersion. Inthis sense,kitschcanbe regarded as necessaryfor successful
cinematiccommunication. Inthis paper,beyondtheconventional negative viewofkitsch,
kitschis viewedas anecessary,heavilybut not entirely,commercial mode ofdiscourse.That
is tosay,kitschcanbeemployedfor goodcause, orabusedforbadcause.
Theaestheticproblem withtheoriginal Zatoichi is not that it is kitsch,but that it misuses or
indulges kitsch. Intheoriginal Zatoichi, Ichi is not onlyakillerbut heis a masseurwho gives
comfort anderoticpleasuretopeople.Katsu played Ichi as alovablecharacter,ateddy-bear
personawhohides asenseofjusticeandskill forswordplay.Whiletenderness anderoticism
areat odds withthe cynicism-orienteddimension oftheanti-hero,theyare deployedtomake
him andthefilm moresexuallyavailable. Forexample,inthefirst episode, when Ichi meets
rival MasterHirateMiki,herealises that theyare akintooneanother; both arefor-hirelone
swordsmen. Intheoriginal Zatoichi, Ichi andthe bodyguardbecomefriends, sympathiseover
theirtragichistory,dream ofescapingtheirirreversibleplight and fight,however reluctantly,
inthefinal scene. As the original Zatoichi series developed,subtletouches inhomoeroticism,
romance, and Ichi's "nureba" (lovescenes)withbawdywomenwereadded. Theindulgence
ofkitschis what destabilisedthebalancebetween audience andworkinthe original Zatoichi.
Thesemisusedqualities maketheaudiencerespondtothefilm inanuncritical way.Sucha
relationshipbetweenthe audience andthefilm leaves theaudienceemotionallysaturated.
Kurosawa's jidaigeki comedies restraintheirkitschelements bymeans of laughter.Aprime
examplecanbeseenin HiddenFortress whichrevolves aroundtwo comicpeasants, Tahei
andMatakichi andtheirjourneywithmore "serious"maincharacters, General Rokurotaand
Princess Yuki. Intheplot,thepeasants arecoerced intoaschemetosmuggleafugitive
princess andhercacheof goldbacktoherhomeland.
AclichédromancebetweenthePrincess andthe General is absent,inspiteofTahei and
Matakichi takingfor grantedthat thePrincess and theGeneral aresexuallyinvolved.The
peasants aredepictedas sexuallyuninhibited,licentious andindulgent,repeatedlyattempting
tomakesexual advances towards the youngprincess.Kurosawatackles voyeurism by
"presenting"the audience's expectationthroughtheactions ofTahei and Matakichi.The
fetish gazetowardtheprincess's bodyis presented throughthe eyes ofthepeasants onlytobe
playfullymockedat thenext moment.Ononehand,Kurosawadeploys "serious"characters,
TheGeneral andthePrincess,tosatisfyaudience desireforheroism,loyaltyandhonour.On
theotherhand,hedeploys comiccharacters, Tahei andMatakichi,toteasetheaudienceso
that theaudience acquires critical self-reflexivity. Thetwocomicpeasants areemployed as a
mirrortoreflect theaudience's initial expectationanddesire.Theplayful shift from
attachment todetachment prevents Kurosawa's films from misusingandindulgingkitsch.
2.3ComedytoIconicity:MifunetoKatsu
As mentionedearlier,the original Zatoichi becameassociated withtheactorKatsu, who
repeatedlyappearedinthetelevisionseries. Theproblem withKatsu's iconicstatus was his
ubiquity. Katsu's Ichi correspondedwithhis eccentricstarpersonaimage(his involvement in
aseries ofscandals beingonefactor).Katsu's bodybecame aconstructionsiteforthe
personalitythat consists ofseparateparts mouldedtogetherbythecamera. Theclose-upshots
of Ichi's closed eyes and ears, forexample,hadenormous implications forthespectator's
relationshiptoKatsu as a star.Misumi commerciallyforegrounded Katsu's personality.
Misumi's cinematicimagedisassembles Katsu in ordertoreconstruct it for thespectator.
Presenting Ichi inthis wayprovedtobemore enduringthan Kurosawa's creation,Yojimbo,
byevolvingintoafetishisedmeta-icon.
In contrast,Kurosawadealt withtheactorinadifferent way. Needless tosay, ToshiroMifune
is anactorwho cametobeacelebratedstarinparallel withKurosawa's rise toglory.
Mifune's athleticism,ruggedhandsomeness, andintensescreenpersonamadehim apopular
jidaigeki heroindozens ofjidaigeki madebyvarious otherdirectors. Kurosawarepetitively
employedMifuneinhis jidaigeki comedies. Inthosefilms, Mifunesucceededinavarietyof
different roles includingcomic(YojimboandSanjuro),honourable(The HiddenFortress)
andwildandreckless (SevenSamurai).Kurosawa mentions inhis autobiography, "Mifune's
attractionis somethinghis innateandpowerful personal qualities pushedunwittinglytothe
fore,"which "couldturnintoaterribleburden." (Kurosawa,1982: 162) To negotiatean
actor's subjectivityandtheweight ofhis ownart,Kurosawadeploys comedyas acreative
equaliser.This is evident inKurosawa's use ofMifuneinhis roleofKikuchiyoinSeven
Samurai.Kurosawa cast Mifuneforthis comicroleat theheight ofhis stardom.Kikuchiyois
acharacterwhoposes as asamurai but actuallycomes from apoor farmingvillage.
Kikuchiyo's restless actions andmonkey-likeexaggerated giggles andlaughter,serve as a
contrast tothe group-orientedsamurai.His individualityis symbolisedbythehugeswordthat
hecarries overhis shoulder,incontrast totheothersamurai whohaveswords that arefairly
ordinary-looking. Individualism shouldneversupersedethe group,andwhenMifune's
characterdoes, heis reprimanded.
Intheoriginal Zatoichi,suchapowerful useof comedyis absent.Katsu's personal
component was indulged intheoriginal Zatoichi,whileMifune's is restrainedinKurosawa's
jidaigeki comedies. Incomparison toKurosawa's films, theoriginal Zatoichi is ethicallyand
aestheticallyimbalanced between audienceandactor.Kurosawaextracts his actor's blustering
andbravado rangefor all its comiceffect.Kurosawatakes liberties withMifune's character,
maximisinghis humourfortheaudience.Usingthepowerofcomedy,Kurosawaprevents the
actor's personal component from pushingunwittinglytothefore.
3.1Kitano's Zatoichi and Kurosawa's JidaigekiComedies
Iwantedasenseofbalancetothefilm. Ididn't want tohavejust actionscenes throughout the
film. Iwantedtoaddsomehumourtolightenup thefilm.(Kitano,2003b)
Thecomical andbalancingintegrityofKurosawa's film is revivifiedinKitano's Zatoichi ina
uniquemanner. Like Kurosawa's jidaigeki comedies, Kitano's Zatoichi negotiates balance
andmaintains aconstant level ofcomedythroughout thefilm. Inhis earlyyears as afilm
director,Kitanodrewaveil overapart ofhis careeras a comedian(Gardner,2000).His early
films suchas Violent Cop (1989)andBoilingPoint (1990)disturbedaudiences withtheir
absurdviolence andnihilistichumour,disconcertinglycombinedwithasceticism and
emotional inscrutability. Comedyandlaughter,beyondnihilistichumourorcynicism,started
tobeinterwovenwithincreasingemotionalityinhis laterfilms, Hana-bi (1997)andKikujiro
(1999).Anelement ofcomedywas introduced withthemelancholydisplayedinHana-bi
(1997).Comedyis furtherdevelopedwithmorejoyandplentyofself-deprecationinKikujiro
(1999). InthenewZatoichi,Kitano's comedyis seentofull effect,alongwithcomicsymbols
such as "tengu" (goblin) andtapdance,also evident in Kikujiro.BuildingonKurosawa's
comictraditions, Kitanodeconstructs thejidaigeki codeof genrefurther. In contrast to
Kurosawa's realisticand authenticjidaigeki comedies, theconstant reminderthat we are
indeedwatchingartifice punctuates Kitano's Zatoichi.
Comedydecentralises boththemaincharacters andalso thenarrativeeffect. It is truethat the
newZatoichi has some"serious" characters --Oume,Hattori andHattori's wife,Okinu-- who
arelocatedstrictlybeneaththeprimacyofthenarrative.However,it also has destructive
characters -- Ichi andOsei --whotravel back and forthbetweenserious andcomic,andthe
entirelycomiccharacter, Shinkichi.Thesedestructiveandcomiccharacters decentrenot only
theserious characters but also themselves.
This is particularlyevident inthescenefollowingtheescapefrom townbyIchi,Shinkichi,
OkinuandOsei,duringthestorm toOume's house.Whiletalkingabout thepainful past and
thepresent it becomes apparent toOkinuthat Ogi, oneofthebandits, maywell beoneofthe
menresponsiblefortheir parents'murder.At theheight ofthis serious revelation,Oumeturns
to Ichi forhis thoughts onthematter.Herfacesuddenlybreaks intoasmileandshesays,
"Masseur,don't makethoseeyes at me." It is then that thecameraswitches toKitanoandthe
audienceseethat hehas twofake eyes paintedon his eyelids. This, ofcourse,was doneto
allow Ichi tocoverhis identitywhen escapingfrom thevillains ofthetown.Oume's amused
reactionto Ichi's made-upeyes concludes thesceneinahilarious tone.
Kitano's destructionoffascinationis also mademanifest inthesceneinwhichbandits decide
toset firetoOume's housetoforceout Ichi who,unknowntothem,has alreadyleft.
Shinkichi is forcedtofleethehousewhilst still dressedas a geisha,completewithwhiteface
make-upandkimono.Thelocal neighbours then arrivetoseewhat is happening.Afterbeing
drawntothehouse fire,theyslowlybecomeawareofShinkichi's appearance.Their
bewilderedlooks at his feminineattireprovidetheaudiencewithanother destructivecomic
interludetothenarrative.
Thecomicrhythm deliberatelydestroys the audienceidentificationwiththefilm itselfand
themajorcharacters such as Ichi,Hattori and Osei. Inthe conventional jidaigeki,
identificationwiththesecharacters wouldhavebeennatural,and wouldhavecausedthe
audiencetobecomeabsorbedinthediegesis. Byusingcomedyinthenew Zatoichi,Kitano
evokes oursenseofwhat is andis not real,andmaximises "real"incontrast with"play".That
is tosay,Kitano's Zatoichi pushes thenotionofcomedyevenfurtherthan Kurosawa's
jidaigeki comedies, probingtherelationshipbetweentherecordingofactual spaceandthe
spectators'perceptionof spaceas symbolic.
Oursenseof what is and is not real is stimulatedbytwocomic characters inthenew
Zatoichi: Ichi andShinkichi.As bothadirector andaTVcomicstar, Kitanonegotiates his
ownpersonal assets; beforeZatoichi's release,Kitanobleachedhis hairfor several months so
that peoplewouldhave a notionofwhat toexpect.The Ichi playedbyKitanois acomic
character,in-betweenstaranddirector,andinsiderandoutsider.The characterisations of
Kitano's Ichi,farfrom thecynical anti-herowitha victimisedpast intheoriginal Zatoichi,is
acutelyevocativeoftwo agrarianritualisticfigures, namely, "tengu"or acomicgoblinanda
scarecrow.
Firstly,Kitano-as-an-actor's associationwithtenguis impliedbyIchi's red cane, andthe
symbolicappearanceoftenguinthe form ofamask, whichappears inthefinal ritual dance
scene. InJapanesefolklore,tenguhas ared face,longnose andlooks likea wandering
Buddhist monk,wearing"geta" (wooden clogs).Thetenguis thepatronof martial arts, andis
always portrayedas havingamischievous senseofhumour.Tengu's mischiefis onlyequal to
its arrogance."Tengu-ni-naru"is anexpressionstill commonlyusedtoask forsomeonenot
tobeas arrogant as atengu.
Likethe folklorictengu, Ichi is askilledswordsman,usingthebladehiddeninthecaneto
dispatchthevillains inbrutallysatisfyingways. Likethetengu, Ichi is both arrogant and
mischievous. Ichi's characterlacks psychological complexity; hehas neitherbackgroundnor
humanmotivations. Theonlyflashbackthe audiencesees of Ichi's past is his bloody
swordfight intherainstorm without context.
Secondly, Ichi's associationwithascarecrowis suggestedinseveral scenes. Thefirst instance
is thescenewherevillagers arebringingthescarecrowtoplaceinafieldto protect their
crops. Theypass Ichi,walkingtheotherway,whichimplies that Ichi will playasimilarrole
as ascarecrowinprotectingthem.Thescarecrow has asword,so does Ichi.Furthermore,the
scarecrow exhibits anerectedphallus as ahumorous reminderofJapanesetraditional fertility
rituals whichglorifyhumangenitals. Thesecondinstanceis just beforethe climacticfinal
battle,when Ichi passes byascarecrowleft inthe middleofthepath,hepicks it upandplants
it backintothefield.Withhis hairbleacheda yellow-blonde,straw-likecolour,Kitano
furtherinsinuates Kitano-as-an-actor's association withthescarecrow. Inthefilm,althougha
scarecrowis at first providedwithfertilityofferings offoodandflowers at its feet,it ends up