Behavioural Adaptations of Desert Animals

204 Pages·1995·13.285 MB·English

by  Prof. Dr. Giovanni Costa (auth.)

Adaptations of Desert Organisms
Edited by J.L. Cloudsley-Thompson
Springer
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Volumes already published
Ecophysiology of the Camelidae and Desert Ruminants
By R.T. Wilson (1989)
Ecophysiology of Desert Arthropods and Reptiles
By J.L. Cloudsley-Thompson (1991)
Plant Nutrients in Desert Environments
By A. Day and K. Ludeke (1993)
Seed Germination in Desert Plants
By Y. Gutterman (1993)
Behavioural Adaptations of Desert Animals
By G. Costa (1995)
In preparation
Invertebrates in Hot and Cold Arid Environments
By L. S0mme (1995)
Bioenergetics of Desert Invertebrates
By H. Heatwole (1995)
Giovanni Costa
Behavioural
Adaptations of
Desert Animals
With 56 Figures
Springer
Prof. Dr. Giovanni Costa
Universita di Catania
Dipartimento di Biologia Animale
Via Androne 81
95124 Catania, Italy
Cover illustration: photograph by J. L. Cloudsley-Thompson
ISBN-13: 978-3-642-79358-5 e-ISBN-13: 978-3-642-79356-1
DOl: 10.1007/978-3-642-79356-1
Library of Congress Cataloging-in· Publication Data. Costa, Giovanni, 1942~ . Behavioural adapta
tions of desert animals I Giovanni Costa. p. cm. ~ (Adaptations of desert organisms) Includes
bibliographical references (p. ) and index.
1. Desert fauna ~ Behavior. 2. Adaptation (Biology) 1. Title. II. Title: Behavioral
adaptations of desert animals. Ill. Series. QL 116.C65 1995 591.5' 2652 ~ dc20 94-41930
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Preface
From the beginning of my scientific activity, I have been engrossed
with the study of animal behaviour. I have always been convinced
that animals, as regular inhabitants of specific habitats, evolved
winning strategies to adapt to apparently adverse environmental
conditions (and more generally to their ecosystems); so it has
been natural for me to carry out ecoethological research. I be
gan by studying animals living in sandy/coastal ecosystems and,
subsequently, took a great interest in desert animals. In this envi
ronment, I expected to find striking adaptations but I must admit
that even my fertile imagination was surpassed by what I learnt
through both personal experience and the study of the rich scien
tific literature on the behaviour of desert animals. For this reason
I accepted - with pleasure and also with some concern - the invi
tation of my friend John Cloudsley-Thompson to contribute, with
this work of mine, to the series Adaptations of Desert Organ
isms. I hope that this book will be useful to its readers and will
discredit some myths based on incorrect but widespread beliefs,
concerning deserts and their faunas.
Indeed, many people believe that the desert is a lifeless en
vironment - in everyday language 'desert' is almost synonymous
with 'uninhabited'. On the contrary, however, the student of the
biology of arid environments knows very well that they are popu
lated by a rich and varied fauna. In connection with this first error,
is another, according to which the desert is a hostile habitat: but,
since it is true that a desert biotope presents unbearable life condi
tions for organisms from other ecosystems, the desert promotes its
own biocoenosis: in fact, the latter has survived there for a very
long time.
However, what I have said is true for every environment: al
most any organism, if moved from its natural habitat to another,
will respond like a "fish out of water". It must be borne in mind
that the more selective a biotope is, the more specialized its bio
coenosis becomes: plants and animals are strictly linked with their
VI Preface
habitat, and their particular adaptations are the result of this re
lationship. This, together with the decisive role of behaviour in
animal survival, is what justifies this book.
Catania, Spring 1995 G. Costa
Acknowledgements
I wish to express my gratitude to the editor of this Series, Prof.
John Leonard Cloudsley-Thompson. He provided me with advice,
suggestions and help. In addition, he undertook the hard task of
revising the text and translating my 'dog' English into intelligible
language.
My thanks are also due to Dr. Dieter Czeschlik, Biology
Editorial of Springer-Verlag, for his confidence and boundless
patience.
I am deeply grateful to Dr. Erminia Conti, my pupil, who
assisted me in typing the manuscript and preparing the original
illustrations. Moreover, the responsibility for encouraging me to
continue working, whenever I wanted to abandon the undertaking
rests entirely with her!
Contents
Introduction ......................................... .
2 Biotope and Vegetation Features ................... . 5
2.1 Definition of Desert ................................. . 5
2.2 Factors of Aridity ................................... . 7
2.3 Classifications of Deserts ........................... . 7
2.3.1 Tropical and Subtropical Deserts ................... . 7
2.3.2 Cool Coastal Deserts ............................... . 8
2.3.3 Rain Shadow Deserts ............................... . 9
2.3.4 Interior Continental Deserts ........................ . 10
2.3.5 Polar Deserts ........................................ . 10
2.3.6 Sandy/Coastal Areas ................................ . 11
2.3.7 Semi-Desert Areas .................................. . 11
2.4 Biotope Features .................................... . 12
2.4.1 Temperature ......................................... . 12
2.4.2 Atmospheric Humidity .............................. . 13
2.4.3 Wind ................................................ . 15
2.5 Characteristics of Desert Vegetation ............... . 15
3 Desert Zoocoenosis .................................. 21
3.1 General Characteristics ............................... 21
3.2 Main Animal Groups ................................ 24
3.2.1 Protozoans. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.2.2 TurbellarianFlatworms .............................. 24
3.2.3 Rotifers............................................... 24
3.2.4 Nematodes ........................................... 25
3.2.5 Annelids.............................................. 25
3.2.6 Gastropods ........................................... 26
3.2.7 Tardigrades........................................... 26
3.2.8 Arachnids ............................................ 26
3.2.9 Crustaceans. . . . . . ... .. . . . ... . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . .. . . . .. .. 28
3.2.10 Myriapods '" ....... ... ..... ..... ....... .... .......... 29
3.2.11 Insects ................................................ 29
3.2.12 Fishes ................................................ 33
3.2.13 Amphibians .......................................... 34
x Contents
3.2.14 Reptiles .............................................. 34
3.2.15 Birds ................................................. 36
3.2.16 Mammals............................................. 39
4 Thennohygric Regulation ........................... . 49
4.1 Timing of Activity Rhythms ........................ . 52
4.2 Modulation of Activity Rhythms .................... . 53
4.3 Exploitation of Substratum Resources .............. . 56
4.3.1 Subterranean Life ................................... . 56
4.3.2 Digging Behaviour .................................. . 56
4.3.3 Looking for Sheltered Microhabitats ............... . 57
4.3.4 Exploitation of Water Resources ................... . 59
4.4 Exploitation of Body Resources .................... . 60
4.4.1 Sun-Basking ......................................... . 60
4.4.2 Self-Production of Shadow ......................... . 61
4.4.3 Body Orientation .................................... . 62
4.4.4 Locomotor Strategies ............................... . 63
4.4.5 Fog-Basking ......................................... . 64
4.5 Exploitation of Social Resources ................... . 64
5 Self-Protective Mechanisms ......................... . 67
5.1 Primary Self-Protection ............................. . 70
5.1.1 Anachoretic Behaviour .............................. . 70
5.1.2 Batesian Mimicry ................................... . 70
5.1.3 Crypsis .............................................. . 71
5.1.4 Aposematism ......................................... . 74
5.2 Secondary Self-Protection ........................... . 75
5.2.1 Retreat ............................................... . 75
5.2.2 Escape ............................................... . 76
5.2.3 Deimatic Behaviour ................................. . 76
5.2.4 Thanatosis ........................................... . 77
5.2.5 Deflection of Attack ................................ . 78
5.2.6 Counterattack ........................................ . 78
5.2.7 Social Defense Strategies ........................... . 79
6 Patterns of Movement .............................. . 81
6.1 Locomotor Patterns ................................. . 81
6.1.1 Crawling ............................................ . 81
6.1.2 Walking ............................................. . 82
6.1.3 Digging .............................................. . 85
6.1.4 Swimming ........................................... . 86
6.2 Orientation Mechanisms ............................ . 89
6.2.1 Primary Orientation ................................. . 90
6.2.2 Secondary Orientation .............................. . 90
6.2.3 Dispersal and Migration ............................ . 96
Contents XI
7 Exploitation of Food Resources .................... . 101
7.1 Herbivores ........................................... . lO2
7.1.1 Insects ............................................... . lO3
7.1.2 Other Invertebrates .................................. . lO6
7.1.3 Rodents .............................................. . 106
7.1.4 Ungulates ............................................ . 107
7.1.5 Other Vertebrates ................................... . llO
7.2 Carnivores ........................................... . 111
7.2.1 Invertebrates ......................................... . 112
7.2.2 Vertebrates 114
7.3 Detritivores .......................................... . 118
8 Reproductive Regulation ............................ . 121
8.1 Timing of Reproduction ............................ . 122
8.2 Partner Location .................................... . 124
8.3 Courtship and Mating ............................... . 128
8.4 Pair Stabilization; Sexual Groups .................. . 132
8.5 Parental Care and Developmental Regulation ...... . 136
9 Social Behaviour .................................... . 141
9.1 Sociality in Desert Environments ................... . 141
9.2 Territorial Phenomena .............................. . 143
9.3 Learning and Culture ............................... . 144
References ................................................... 149
Subject Index ................................................ 185