Beautiful Bottom, Beautiful Shame: Where “Black” Meets “Queer” PDF
Preview Beautiful Bottom, Beautiful Shame: Where “Black” Meets “Queer”
Introduction EMBRACING SHAME ‘‘BLACK’’AND‘‘QUEER’’INDEBASEMENT TheEyesoftheTimes InthesamesummerthetvsensationQueerEyefortheStraightGuyburst onthescene,makingitseemasifeverymanwhowashopelesslydense abouthousewaresandclotheswasnowahappymannequintoagroupof queens,theNewYorkTimesMagazinewasreporting,inacoverstory,on 1 aidsanddoublelivesintheblackhomosexualunderground. SuchanuncoveringbytheTimes,linkingblackmentohide-outsand aids,wasprobablynotprettytoconventionaleyes:blackmenmeeting inthebasementofabathhouse,tryingtodresslike‘‘thugs,’’seekingsex frommenwhoalsoseek‘‘thugs,’’menwhoreportthattheyarenotgay, justblackmenseekingotherblackmenonthesecretcircuittheycallthe DownLow.‘‘Gaysarethefaggotswhodress,talkandactlikegirls.That’s notme,’’onemanexplains(32).Or,astheTimesreporterputit:‘‘Reject- ingagayculturetheyperceiveaswhiteandeffeminate,manyblackmen,’’ whosleepwithmen,andcomefrommanywalksoflife(professional,un- employed,working-class),‘‘havesettledonanewidentity,withitsown vocabulary...anditsownname:DownLow’’(30).Hypermasculinityis theircallingcard;‘‘dlThugs,’’theironlinechatroom. Downloaded from https://read.dukeupress.edu/books/chapter-pdf/98156/9780822387985-001.pdf by Cambridge University user on 14 May 2019 True,saidtheTimes,‘‘therehavealwaysbeenmen—blackandwhite— whohavehadsecretsexualliveswithmen.Butthecreationofanorga- nized,undergroundsubculturelargelymadeupofblackmenwhoother- wiselivestraightlivesisaphenomenonofthelastdecade’’(30).Aman on the dl glosses the term: ‘‘Being on the dl is about having fun. . . . Theclosetisn’tfun.Inthecloset,you’relonely....Ithinkdlisjusta new, sexier way to say you’re in the closet’’ (31). ‘‘Still,’’ said the Times, ‘‘forallthedefiancethatdlcultureclaimsforitself,foralloftheforce- fulnessofthe‘neverapologize,neverexplain’stance,asenseofshame canhoveratthemargins’’(48).Andwhateveritsintent,thearticlemakes shamehoverratherdarklybyciting‘‘grimstatistics’’:‘‘Accordingtothe Centers for Disease Control,’’ the Times continues, ‘‘one-third of young urbanblackmenwhohavesexwithmeninthiscountryarehiv-positive, and90percentofthoseareunawareoftheirinfection,’’‘‘making[these men]aninfectiousbridgespreadinghivtounsuspectingwivesandgirl- friends’’(30). ThisnewnewsfortheNewYorkTimes,in2003,wasaformofoldnews inadifferentform:thestrainedrelationsbetween‘‘black’’and‘‘gay’’atthe levelofsigns,evenasongoingstrugglesforrightsandahealthepidemic ofepicproportionscontinuedtoconnectblackandgaypeople.Notmuch newer in the Times’s cover story was the dream of a bottom (here, the DownLow)asasexualandeconomicsocialcommunion,morethanany kindofeconomiccondition—oneensuringpleasures,eveniftheycome withshame.AsIsay,thesedynamics—sensitiverelationsbetweentwo signs and embrace of bottom states—were hardly new, as I will amply show. But there has been too little intellectual curiosity applied to the waysthesedynamicsintersect. Iwouldliketotakeanewlycuriouslookatbottomvaluesforwomen and men; to understand why certain forms of shame are embraced by blacksandqueers,andalsoblackqueers,inforcefulways.Wearebound inthispursuittoprobethevalueofdebasementasacentralsocialaction, evenwhendebasementseemsaprivate,lonelyact.Wearelikewisebound tocutapaththroughstrainedrelations(betweengroupsofpeopleand between their signs) to see how ‘‘queer’’ and ‘‘black’’ touch upon each other’smeanings,nomatterwhoorwhatwouldkeepthemapart.These two forms of social communion—through acts of debasement and the crossingofsigns—arethefocusofthisbook. 2 INTRODUCTION Downloaded from https://read.dukeupress.edu/books/chapter-pdf/98156/9780822387985-001.pdf by Cambridge University user on 14 May 2019 1.Hedwigbottom-upondoor,HedwigandtheAngryInch(2001). SeductiveDebasementandtheRoleofaSwitchpoint Letmeintroduce,provisionallyhere,howwemightthinkaboutthecross- ingofsignsinthecontextofdebasement—andthinkaboutdebasement in the context of seduction. Imagine a man’s putting candy on some rubble, making a line, marked by candy, on top of the rubble, drawing youtowardhisbeautifulbody,partsofitcoveredincandywhenyousee it.The candy-covered body, with its candy-colored spread, leads you to find yourself carried away—by a seduction that you’ve never seen take 2 thisstrangeform. The seduction of our eyes (eye candy, indeed) takes place while we areseeingaseductiononitswaytounfoldingadebasement.InHedwig andtheAngryInch(2001),anEastGermanyouth(effeminate,flamboy- ant,lyingbottomupontheruinsofadoor)meetsaseductiveandolder blackAmericanarmysergeant(abuff‘‘SugarDaddy,’’witharichsupply ofcandy)whentheyouthistanning,inabombed-outcrater,bytheBer- linWall(seefigures1and2).Thetwohatchaplantomarryeachother byunusualmeans,therebypullingtheGermantwenty-somethingacross thewall:theyouthwillhaveasex-change.Asitturnsout,theprocedure isbotched,leavingtheyoungmannotwithapenisnorwithanewvagina, but, instead, an ‘‘angry inch,’’ as the movie’s title puts it. His move to theStatesissimultaneouswiththefallofthewall(ironicallymakinghis EMBRACINGSHAME 3 Downloaded from https://read.dukeupress.edu/books/chapter-pdf/98156/9780822387985-001.pdf by Cambridge University user on 14 May 2019 2.SugarDaddywithcandy,HedwigandtheAngryInch(2001). great escape moot), along with the end of the lovers’ relations, leaving thevieweratthispointtowonder:thefilmneedsablackAmericanmale (needsaspecificallyblackSugarDaddy)toindicate...what? Wecan’tfullytell,thoughanynumberofassociationsseemtoriseup: freedom,falsefreedom,migration(ofcourse),thecuttingtoneofirony, mythsofcastrationandgenitalfullness,miscegenation.Theblackman’s momentary passage through this text operates as a luxurious crossing, so voluptuous at the level of image that no one’s political extraction of apointcansufficientlydeliverthefunkofhiscandy-coveredform.And yet,initsfullness,thiscrossingalsoworksasafascinatingswitchpoint. Byswitchpointhere,Imeanthepointatwhichonesign’srichaccumu- lations—those surrounding ‘‘American black’’—lend themselves to an- other—‘‘East German queer’’ (among other possible readings of these bodies).Thatis,throughthefigureoftheblackSugarDaddy,numerous meaningsattachedto‘‘black’’(perhapsfalsefreedomormythsofcastra- tion,totaketwoobviousassociations)switchontonewtracksandsignify inthefieldof‘‘queerness’’(whetherhisownqueernessorthatoftheboy). Ithinkofaswitchpoint,atleastinpart,inrailroadterms,according towhicha‘‘switch’’is‘‘amovablesectionofrailroadtrack’’thatis‘‘used intransferringatrainfromonesetoftrackstoanother’’;or,inelectrical terms:‘‘adeviceusedtoopen,closeordivertanelectriccurrent’’;or,in 4 INTRODUCTION Downloaded from https://read.dukeupress.edu/books/chapter-pdf/98156/9780822387985-001.pdf by Cambridge University user on 14 May 2019 thegeneralsenseofaswitchas‘‘ashiftortransference,especiallyifsud- 3 denorunexpected.’’ Mytalkofswitchpointsthroughoutthisbookwill drawonallthesepossiblemeanings.Largely,Iwillusethetermtorefer toapointofconnectionbetweentwosigns(ortworatherseparateconno- tativefields)wheresomethingfromoneflowstoward(isdivertedinthe directionof)theother,lendingitsconnotativespreadandsignifyingforce totheother,illuminatingitandintensifyingit,butalsosometimesshift- ingitoradulteratingit.Indeed,themeaningofHedwig’ssexchange—as abotchedpromiseofhappymigration—becomesmoreexpansive(more texturedandintense)byaseriesofconnotativejunctureswiththehistory ofthesignifier‘‘black,’’andwiththelayeredmeaningsofablackSugar Daddy.Notthatwereceiveapreciseandsingularviewfromthisswitch- point.Weonlyknowforsurethatthefilmputsthesignofablackman (differentlyqueerfromtheboy)attheoriginofthe‘‘angryinch’’—thestart ofasurprisinglytenderdebasement,whichitistheviewer’stroubledtask tocomprehend. ComprehendingDebasementandtheValueofShame Exploring the conceptual contours of debasement, this book discovers switchpointsbetweenblackandqueer,queerandblack,withreference tosuchmattersasthestigmatized‘‘skin’’ofsomequeers’clothes(chap- ter1),theanaliconographyofblacklaborstruggles(chapter2),thevisual powerofinterracialso-calledsame-sexrape(chapter3),thepretzellogic ofhomosexualmiscegenation(chapter4),andthefluid,aids-liketrans- missionstoblacksofmemoriesofdeadblackAmericanslaves(chapter5). Considerthefollowingtextualblocksthatdepictthesedebasements: The law said [women] had to be wearing [at least] three pieces of women’sclothing....Inevertoldyouwhattheydidtousdownthere [inthejail]—queensinonetank,[we]stonebutches[dressedlikemen] inthenext—butyouknew....Yougentlyrubbedthebloodyplaces onmyshirtandsaid,‘‘I’llnevergetthosestainsout.’’ —LeslieFeinberg,StoneButchBlues [In the] darkness and freezing stench [of the outhouse], Eva turned [her]babyoveronherknees,exposedhisbuttocksandshovedthelast bitoffoodshehadintheworld(besidesthreebeets)uphisass. —ToniMorrison,Sula EMBRACINGSHAME 5 Downloaded from https://read.dukeupress.edu/books/chapter-pdf/98156/9780822387985-001.pdf by Cambridge University user on 14 May 2019 Butch cuts across traffic and dashes into a business with a sign that reads:mason-dixon pawnshop....Miserable,violatedandlooking likearagdoll,[blackdruglord]Marsellus[Wallace],redballgagstillin hismouth,openshiswateryeyestoseeButchcomingupbehind[the redneckwhojustrapedMarsellus]. —QuentinTarantino,screenplay,PulpFiction Isawsuddenlythepowerinhisthighs...andinhislooselycurledfists. Thatbody[Joey’sbody]suddenlyseemedtheblackopeningofacav- ern...inwhichIwouldlosemymanhood.Precisely,Iwantedtoknow that mystery and feel that power. . . . A cavern opened in my mind, black,fullofrumor,suggestion....[‘‘Theincident’’ofsexwithJoey] remained...atthebottomofmymind,asstill...asadecomposing corpse. —JamesBaldwin,Giovanni’sRoom And,forsomereasonshecouldnotimmediatelyaccountfor,themo- mentshegotcloseenoughtosee[Beloved’s]face,Sethe’sbladderfilled tocapacity....Shenevermadetheouthouse.Rightinfrontofitsdoor she had to lift her skirts, and the water she voided was endless. . . . [I]nfrontofherownprivy[shewas]makingamudholetoodeeptobe witnessedwithoutshame. —ToniMorrison,Beloved Eachoftheseblocksgivesaviewofshamethatisuniqueconceptually and potent historically: a stigma attached to certain clothes akin to the stigmaofcoloredskin(andastrangemartyrdomtocloththatensues), awoman’sanalpenetrationofamaleasawayoffeedingandprotecting him,abody’sanalcut(throughtheactofanalrape)inwhichistuckeda history(aMason-Dixonhistory)thatispiercingtotheeye,male-to-male miscegenationasthebirthingofacorpsethatisblackinthemind,and the brain’s prophylactic struggle with the dead, especially those voided whowerebeloved,whothreatentowashacrossthemindinthemanner ofafluidsexchange. BeforeIreturn,later,tooutliningthesespecificchapters,letmeex- plainthedefinitionsandintentsthatshapethisbook—andalso,inamo- ment,offermyreaderacriticalgenealogyofinfluentialthinkersthinking throughshame.MovingthroughBataille,Kristeva,Taussig,Bersani,and Sedgwick—thelattermostcentrally—alongwithEdelman,Litvak,Ken- nedy,Muñoz,Holland,andalsoReid-Pharr,Iwilljointhisgenealogy.But 6 INTRODUCTION Downloaded from https://read.dukeupress.edu/books/chapter-pdf/98156/9780822387985-001.pdf by Cambridge University user on 14 May 2019 first,somedefinitions.Obviously,shameisacommon,forcefulwordfor disgrace.Bydefinition,shameis‘‘apainfulemotioncausedbyastrong sense of guilt, embarrassment, [or] unworthiness.’’ For example, in the textualblocksabove,weclearlyencounterguiltoversex(renderedinthe image of a decomposing corpse), obvious embarrassment over voiding (Sethe’smakingof‘‘amudholetoodeeptobewitnessedwithoutshame’’), and two attempted enforcements of unworthiness through police bru- talityandredneckrape.Wealsoencounteraseeminglymorematter-of- factdescriptionofananalfeedingbyamotherinanouthouse—ascene likelytoriskareader’sattributionofembarrassment,anattributionthat Morrisonbothgoadsandrefusesinheruniquelyuncensoriousrelation toanalityinSula.Infact,itwillbeaconstantquestioninthisstudy:who attributesshametoanyfeelingoraction?Acharacter,anarrator,aliter- arycritic?Andwhatwide-rangingtonalitiesareevident(includingakind ofmatter-of-factness)inthewaysthesedifferenttextstakeon(potential mattersof)embarrassment,guilt,orunworthiness? AlthoughIwillspeakofshameinthesecontexts,Iwillalsogravitate toshame’ssynonym,‘‘debasement,’’inthisbook.Ilikeitsrelation,the seemingmisfitofdebasement,totheconceptof‘‘value.’’Ilikeitsassocia- tionwith‘‘adulteration.’’Ienjoyaswellitspropensitytobemisheardbya heareras‘‘thebasement.’’Accordingtothedictionary,‘‘todebase’’means ‘‘tolowerinquality,character,orvalue.’’Debasement,bythisdefinition, wouldseemopposedtovalue,since‘‘tovalue’’means‘‘toesteemhighly.’’ Sowhatwouldthevalueofdebasementlooklike?Mybookprobesthis issue.Secondly,‘‘todebase’’means‘‘toadulterate’’:‘‘tomakeimpure... byaddingextraneousorimproperingredients.’’Thisdefinitionsuitsmy mixingofblackandqueersignsandassociationsinthisstudy(anadul- teration,perhaps,tosomereaders)alongwithmyspecificinterestinmix- ing(miscegenation).Finally,IhavefoundthatwheneverItellpeoplewhat Iamwriting—abookaboutdebasement—almosttoaperson,theythink Iamwritingon‘‘thebasement.’’Thismisperceptionaccords,ofcourse, withdebasement’s‘‘lowering.’’Italsoagreeswiththephysical,material loweringIdiscussinreferencetothe‘‘bottom’’:thebody’sbottom(two chaptersareaboutqueeranality),butalsojustascentrallythebottomof one’smind,and,byeconomicreference,thelowestend(thebottom,that is)ofaneconomicscale.Forallofthesereasons,‘‘debasement’’isoneof mytermsofchoice,alongwith‘‘abjection’’and‘‘humiliation,’’whichIask the reader to keep close at hand. ‘‘Abject’’ (listed in its adjectival form) addsthesenseof ‘‘castaway’’(fromtheLatinabjectus,abjicere,tothrow EMBRACINGSHAME 7 Downloaded from https://read.dukeupress.edu/books/chapter-pdf/98156/9780822387985-001.pdf by Cambridge University user on 14 May 2019 away)andmeans‘‘ofthemostcontemptiblekind.’’‘‘Humiliation’’lends the important sense of ‘‘religious mortification’’—illustrated, in Ameri- canHeritage,byDonne’sline:‘‘Humiliationisthebeginningofsanctifi- cation.’’Thissensewillfigureinmybook’sfirstchapteronamartyrdom toclothes,andinseveralotherchaptersinmoresubtleways. For all of this, debasement should not be seen as a theme in this book—though anyone wanting to theorize shame or historicize shame (assomemightputit)shouldreadon.Debasementisafullyindispens- ableinformant.Itisakeytounderstandingtheties,boldandsubtle,be- tweentwosignsthatwouldseemlinguistically,historicallyseparate.The strangenessofqueernesswouldnotseemparticularlydestinedtomeet thedarknessofblackness,exceptinthebodiesofdarkqueerfolk.Wewill seethisisnotso.Shameisanequal-opportunitymeeting-placeforthese signs.Infact,Ibelievewecannotgraspcertaincomplicatedcultural,his- toricalentanglementsbetween‘‘black’’and‘‘queer’’without,atthesame time,interrogatingshame—itsbeautiful,generative,sorrowfuldebase- mentsthatmakebottompleasuressodarkandsostrange. Before I continue with this book’s plan, and take up more fully the crossing of signs in the context of debasement, I want to offer a short genealogy of influential thinkers who have thought about embracing shame,orsomethinglikeit.Intriguingpatternsofthoughtemergeacross this group (which is not exhaustive) and raise the question of certain asymmetriesclingingtostudiesofblacksandqueers. WhoThinksAboutEmbracingShame?ACriticalGenealogy Atfirstglance,embracingshamewouldseemtobeanathemato(overlap- ping)groupslikequeersandblacks,whohavebeensopubliclymarked asdegradedanddebased.Infact,famousvoicessuchasthoseofFrantz Fanon,writinginthe1950s,andbellhooks,writingin2004,havetire- lesslyandcarefullychampioneddignity. Fanon, in his classic Black Skin,White Masks, opens his book with anepigraphtakenfromAiméCésaire:‘‘Iamtalkingofmillionsofmen whohavebeenskillfullyinjectedwithfear,inferioritycomplexes,trepi- 4 dation, servility, despair, abasement.’’ He starts his chapter ‘‘The Fact ofBlackness’’withthestinginglines,‘‘‘Dirtynigger!’Orsimply,‘Looka Negro!’...Ifound...Iwasanobjectinthemidstofotherobjects....I wasindignant....Iburstapart’’(109).Afewpageslater:‘‘Shame.Shame andself-contempt.Nausea....Theevidencewasthere,unalterable.My 8 INTRODUCTION Downloaded from https://read.dukeupress.edu/books/chapter-pdf/98156/9780822387985-001.pdf by Cambridge University user on 14 May 2019 blacknesswasthere,darkandunarguable.Andittormentedme,pursued me,disturbedme,angeredme’’(116–17).Andso,hetellsus,heiswriting hisbooktoaddressblackpeoples’‘‘internalization—or,better,theepider- malization—ofthisinferiority’’(11).‘‘Ihopebyanalyzingittodestroyit,’’ Fanonsayssuccinctly.‘‘Iseriouslyhopetopersuademybrother,whether black or white, to tear off with all his strength the shameful livery put togetherbycenturiesofincomprehension’’(12).Shameislikeagarment, then(‘‘ashamefullivery’’)—butalsolikeaskin(an‘‘epidermalization’’)— thatcanbetakenoff,andputon.(‘‘Willy-nilly,theNegrohastowearthe liverythatthewhitemanhassewedforhim,’’34.) HalfacenturypastFanon,andwritingnotinaFrenchpsychoanalytic vein like his (with its stress on an ‘‘inferiority complex’’) but in a more Americanidiom,bellhooks,inarecentbook,Salvation:BlackPeopleand Love(2004),speaksintermsof‘‘self-esteem.’’Inachapterentitled‘‘Mov- ing Beyond Shame,’’ hooks addresses ‘‘the negative impact of the color castesystem...asamajorimpedimenttohealthyself-esteem,’’which, shestates,isabiggerproblemnow,post–civilrights,thanitusedtobefor 5 blackAmericans. ‘‘Sincetelevisionhasprimarilyexploitedstereotypical imagesofblackness,’’hookswrites,‘‘smallchildrenheldcaptivebythese screenimagesfrombirth...absorbthemessagethatblackisinferior, unworthy,dumb,evil,andcriminal’’(77).Whathooksreferstoas‘‘racial- izedshaming,’’whichmayresultfromstandardsofbeauty,formsofhu- mor,orverbalattacks,‘‘hasbeenacentralcomponentofracialassault,’’ she writes, and ‘‘leads . . . to significant breakdowns in [black people’s] mentalhealth’’(81–82).hooksconcludesherchapter:‘‘Thereshouldbe booksthatdonothingbutaccentuatethepositive,sharingtheoriesand strategiesofdecolonizationthatenableself-love’’(92). I give these examples from Fanon and hooks to beg an uncomfort- ablequestionfromthestart.Istheconceptionofvaluableshamesome- thing only a queer would consider (a white queer at that)? Throughout this book, I will say it is not. First of all, we should note that homo- sexuals,gays,andlesbians,fromtheearlyhomophilemovementsofthe fifties(whenFanoniswriting)togaypublicadvocatesasdiverseasLarry Kramer,UrvashiVaid,JonathanNedKatz,AudreLorde,andthechanging headsoftheHumanRightsCampaign(allofwhomareactivewhenhooks iswriting),alsospeaktodignity.Second,thoughsurelystrangeandper- verse,thisembracingshame(asIamcallingit)inculturalcriticismand social commentary does not begin with queer theory—a phenomenon underwayintheUnitedStatesonlybythe1980s.Thisembrace,thatis,is EMBRACINGSHAME 9 Downloaded from https://read.dukeupress.edu/books/chapter-pdf/98156/9780822387985-001.pdf by Cambridge University user on 14 May 2019 nothomosexualinitsinception.Moreover,whenqueersdotakeitup,it isfurtheredbyblacksaswellaswhites.Thus,totheextentthatthoughts aboutembracingshameseemweightedtowardthefieldofqueertheory, thisweightingmayresultfromthegreaterembraceinsidequeertheoryof thethinkersIwillmention.Asregardsfiction,notexpositoryprose,and thisparticulardistinctioniscrucial,IhopetoshowdramaticallythatBald- win,Genet,Tarantino,andMorrison,amongotherwritersdiscussedin thisbook,areintenselyengagedinembracingcertaingenerativeaspects ofshame.Thebeautifulbottomasimaginativeresourceisawell-traveled crossroadsfor‘‘black’’and‘‘queer.’’ Charmingly, the reason for this is the toe—at least according to Georges Bataille, a highly influential and original critical voice who speakstoembracingdebasement.Someoneseenasperversebysurreal- ists (which is not as contradictory as it sounds), someone deemed an ‘‘excremental philosopher’’ by André Breton (the chief surrealist in the twentiesandthirtieswhenBatailleiswriting),andsomeonewhowrotea novelentitledW.C.(withitsheroineDirty),Batailleisknownforattack- ingdignity.Ofcourse,hemightsaythat(ideasof)dignityjumpedhim firstandassaultedhishumanity.Thisiswherethehumantoeentersin. Thebigtoe,specifically—anequalopportunityorgan,wemightnote— ‘‘isthemosthumanpartofthehumanbody,’’Batailleasserts,sinceitdif- 6 ferentiates people from apes and allows human beings to stand erect. ‘‘Butwhatevertheroleplayedintheerectionbyhisfoot,’’Bataillewrites, ‘‘man...seesitasspit,onthepretextthathehasthisfootinthemud’’— ‘‘mudanddarknessbeingtheprinciplesofevil,’’heremindsus(hisem- phasis)(20).Bataillecontinues:‘‘Humanlifeentails,infact,therageof seeingoneselfasabackandforthmovementfromrefusetotheideal,and fromtheidealtorefuse—aragethatiseasilydirectedagainstanorganas baseasthefoot’’(hisemphasis)(21).Moreover,‘‘manwillinglyimagines himselftobelikethegodNeptune,stillinghisownwaves,withmajesty; nevertheless, the bellowing waves of the viscera . . . put an end to his dignity’’(22). Twopointsclearlyemergefromthisessay(called‘‘TheBigToe’’):de- basementiswithinusanddefinesourhumanity;debasementisseduc- tive.Onthislatterpoint,Batailleremindsusofthe‘‘sacrilegiouscharm’’ ofsomethingasreveredasthequeen’sfoot:‘‘Hereonesubmitstoaseduc- tion radically opposed to that caused by light and ideal beauty; the two ordersofseductionareoftenconfusedbecauseapersonconstantlymoves 10 INTRODUCTION Downloaded from https://read.dukeupress.edu/books/chapter-pdf/98156/9780822387985-001.pdf by Cambridge University user on 14 May 2019
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