Basics of PET Imaging: Physics, Chemistry, and Regulations PDF
Preview Basics of PET Imaging: Physics, Chemistry, and Regulations
Basics of PET Imaging Physics, Chemistry, and Regulations Second Edition Gopal B. Saha, PhD Department of Nuclear Medicine, The Cleveland Clinic Foundation,Cleveland,Ohio Basics of PET Imaging Physics, Chemistry, and Regulations Second Edition With 72 Illustrations 123 Gopal B. Saha, Ph.D. Department of Nuclear Medicine The Cleveland Clinic Foundation Cleveland, OH 44195 USA ISBN 978-1-4419-0804-9 e-ISBN 978-1-4419-0805-6 DOI 10.1007/978-1-4419-0805-6 Springer New York Dordrecht Heidelberg London Library of Congress Control Number: 2009941060 ©SpringerScience+BusinessMedia,LLC2010 Allrightsreserved. Thisworkmaynotbetranslatedorcopiedinwholeorinpartwithoutthewritten permissionofthepublisher(SpringerScience+BusinessMedia,LLC,233SpringStreet,NewYork,NY 10013,USA),exceptforbriefexcerptsinconnectionwithreviewsorscholarlyanalysis.Useinconnection withanyformofinformationstorageandretrieval,electronicadaptation,computersoftware,orbysimilar ordissimilarmethodologynowknownorhereafterdevelopedisforbidden. Theuseinthispublicationoftradenames,trademarks,servicemarks,andsimilarterms,eveniftheyare notidentifiedassuch,isnottobetakenasanexpressionofopinionastowhetherornottheyaresubject toproprietaryrights. Printedonacid-freepaper Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com) To my teachers,mentors,and friends Preface Since the publication of this book in 2005, the growth of positron emission tomography(PET)andPET/CTmodalityhasbeenphenomenalwiththedis- covery of efficient detectors and the addition of sophisticated scanners and powerfulsoftware.Becauseofthevastadvancementandchangesintechnol- ogy, and also with great appreciation of the success of the first edition, we thoughtasecondeditionofthebookwouldbeappropriate. The book is revised to again fulfill the needs of nuclear medicine profes- sionals such as physicians, technologists, and residents, along with students fortheirboardexaminationandtraining.Thecontentsofthebookhavebeen keptatthebasiclevelaswasinthefirstedition. The organization of the book essentially has remained the same. Some chapters have been revised very extensively, while others have only minor changes.NochangehasbeenmadeinChap.1asitisbasedonbasicphysics. Extensive revision has been made in Chaps. 2 and 3 to include up-to-date information on detectors, scanners, and data collection. Chapter 4 in the original edition has been divided into Chaps. 4 and 5 to allow for a sepa- ratechapteron“Storage,Display, andPACS.”Chapter6hasbeenupdated withnewinformationonNEMAstandardsonacceptancetestsofPETscan- ners.NewPETradionuclidesandthelistofcurrentavailablecyclotronshave beenaddedtoChap.7.Chapter8includesasectiononCompoundingofPET Radiopharmaceuticals,inadditiontoseveralnewPETradiopharmaceuticals. NewregulationsconcerningtheuseofPETradiopharmaceuticals,thelicens- ingofphysiciansandtechnologists,andtheaccreditationofPETfacilitiesto beeligibleforreimbursementforPETproceduresareallincludedinChap.9. Chapter10hasbeenrevised,focusingontheissuesofcurrentreimbursement issuesforPETstudies.OnlyminorchangeshavebeenmadeinChaps.11and 12toincludeup-to-dateinformation. Questionshavebeenaddedattheend ofeachchapter,asappropriate,toreflectthechangesincontents. IthankmycolleaguesattheClevelandClinicFoundationfortheirsupport in many ways and Mrs. Diane Griffis for kindly typing and completing the manuscriptontime. vii viii Preface IsincerelythankAndrewMoyer,editorofradiologyandnuclearmedicine, atSpringerforsupportandencouragement,andS.GeethalakshmiSrinivasan, ProjectManager,atSPiTechnologiesIndiaPvtLtdforexcellentproduction ofthebook. Cleveland,OH GopalB.Saha Contents 1. RadioactiveDecayandInteractionofRadiationwithMatter . . . 1 AtomicStructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 RadioactiveDecay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 αDecay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 β− Decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Positron(β+)Decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 ElectronCapture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 IsomericTransition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 RadioactiveDecayEquations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 GeneralDecayEquations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 SuccessiveDecayEquations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 UnitsofRadioactivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 UnitsofRadioactivityinSystemInternationale . . . . . . . . . 9 Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 InteractionofRadiationwithMatter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 InteractionofChargedParticleswithMatter . . . . . . . . . . . 10 InteractionofγRadiationwithMatter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 ReferencesandSuggestedReading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 2. PETScanningSystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 SolidScintillationDetectorsinPET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 PhotomultiplierTube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 PulseHeightAnalyzer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 ArrangementofDetectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 PETScanners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 CoincidenceScintillationCameras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 PET/CTScanners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 SmallAnimalPETScanner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 MobilePETorPET/CT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 ix x Contents Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 ReferencesandSuggestedReading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 3. DataAcquisitionandCorrections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 PETDataAcquisition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 TimeofFlightMethod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 Two-Dimensionalvs.Three-Dimensional DataAcquisition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 FactorsAffectingAcquiredPETData . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Normalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 PhotonAttenuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 AttenuationCorrectionMethods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 RandomCoincidences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 ScatterCoincidences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 CorrectionforScatterCoincidences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 DeadTime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 RadialElongation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 PET/CTDataAcquisition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 FactorsAffectingPET/CTData . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 ReferencesandSuggestedReading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 4. ImageReconstruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 SimpleBackprojection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 FilteredBackprojection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 TheFourierMethod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 TypesofFilters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 IterativeReconstruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 3DReconstruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 PartialVolumeEffect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 ReferencesandSuggestedReading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 5. Storage,Display,andPACS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 Display . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 SoftwareandDICOM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 PACS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 Teleradiology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 ReferencesandSuggestedReading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 6. PerformanceCharacteristicsofPETScanners . . . . . . . . . . . 97 SpatialResolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 Sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 NoiseEquivalentCountRate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 ScatterFraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 Contrast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 Contents xi QualityControlofPETScanners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 DailyQualityControlTests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 WeeklyQualityControlTests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 AcceptanceTestsforPETScanners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 SpatialResolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 ScatterFraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 Sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 CountRateLossesandRandomCoincidences . . . . . . . . . . 112 QualityControlofCTScanners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 ReferencesandSuggestedReading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 7. CyclotronandProductionofPETRadionuclides . . . . . . . . . . 117 CyclotronOperation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 MedicalCyclotron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 NuclearReaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 TargetandItsProcessing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 EquationforProductionofRadionuclides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 SpecificActivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 ProductionofPositron-EmittingRadionuclides . . . . . . . . . . . 125 Fluorine-18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 Carbon-11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 Nitrogen-13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 Oxygen-15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 Iodine-124 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 Strontium-82 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 Technetium-94m . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 Germanium-68 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 Copper-62 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 ReferencesandSuggestedReading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 8. SynthesisofPETRadiopharmaceuticals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 PETRadiopharmaceuticals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 18F-SodiumFluoride . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 18F-Fluorodeoxyglucose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 6-18F-L-Fluorodopa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 18F-Fluorothymidine(FLT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 18F-BMS-747158-02 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 18F-O-(2-Fluoroethyl)-L-Tyrosine(FET) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 18F-Fluoromisonidazole(FMISO) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 18F-1-(5-fluoro-5-deoxy-α-arabinofuranosyl)- 2-nitroimidazole(FAZA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 15O-Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 n-15O-Butanol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
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