Basic Principles of Topography

229 Pages·2018·17.4 MB·English

by  Blagoja Markoski (auth.)

Springer Geography
Blagoja Markoski
Basic
Principles of
Topography
Springer Geography
The Springer Geography series seeks to publish a broad portfolio of scientific
books, aiming at researchers, students, and everyone interested in geographical
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More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/10180
Blagoja Markoski
Basic Principles
of Topography
123
BlagojaMarkoski
FacultyofNaturalScienceandMathematics,
Institute of Geography
Skopje
Macedonia
Translated byVera Mircheska-Jovanovska, ElenaMihajlova
TheWorkwasfirstpublishedin2016byGEOMAP,DOO,Skopjewiththefollowingtitle:
Foundationsof Topography(Original Macedonian Title:ОСНОВИНАТОПОГРАФИЈА)
ISSN 2194-315X ISSN 2194-3168 (electronic)
SpringerGeography
ISBN978-3-319-72146-0 ISBN978-3-319-72147-7 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-72147-7
LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2017960924
Translated from the Macedonian version and several pedagogical features added as well as a
terminologicaldictionary
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Preface
The motivation behind writing this book is the recognition that modern humans
have a necessity to move in nature (people’s movement in the past was limited to
theimmediateenvironment).Mantodayhastheneed,aswellastheopportunity,to
visit and observe territories, areas and places far away from home where everyday
lifeisspent.Sinceheisnotveryfamiliarwiththosefarawayterritories,herequires
knowledge of how to organize himself and move on that terrain in a safe manner.
Another reason is also the fact that in nature man comes across diverse relief
landformsand iseager toknow what they are,howthey werecreated,how hecan
gain a more detailed knowledge of them, and so on.
Intheprocessofmovinginageographical spacefilled withavarietyofnatural
phenomena and topographic forms, man might be faced with many circumstances
endangering his personal safety.
The purpose of this book, Basic Principles of Topography, is to familiarize
people with new topographic theories of the ground, the ways of representing
naturecontentonamapusingallmathematical(cartographicprojection,scale,map
border) and geographic (relief landforms, hydrography, land and vegetation, set-
tlements, infrastructure, borders, various objects) elements of maps. Methods of
map measurement (cartometry), orientation in geographic space and overland
movement using diverse signs in nature and a set of purposefully designed
instrumentsarealsoexamined.Attentionispaidtodescribingthefeaturesofaerial
photography and satellite imagery, as well as modern geopositioning systems.
A separate chapter is dedicated to the method of mapping and cartographically
representing vegetation units.
This book, with all its content, is very useful for a variety of organizations and
institutions which are directly related to geographical space such as: police and
militaryorganizationsandunitswithalloftheirspecializedactivities;scientificand
design organizations (geographers, geologists, biologists, ecologists, rangers,
builders);andorganizations involved innavigation,mountainsports,andsoon,as
well as for every individual.
v
vi Preface
The book was written following the principles of being short, coherent and
concise.Forreasonsofclarityandpracticality,partsofthebookarearrangedusing
colours.
We take this opportunity to express our most sincere gratitude towards the
authorsandpublishersofeditionsusedtodevelopthispieceofwriting.Theyhave
been respectively cited and presented noting source editions.
Weareusingthisopportunitytoexpressourgratitudetowardsourreviewersand
everyonewho,directlyorindirectly,contributedtowardthecreationofthispieceof
writing.
Skopje, Macedonia Blagoja Markoski
Contents
1 Basic Principles of Topography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Subject, Problem, Methods and Significance of Topography . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Subject . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.2 Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.3 Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.4 Significance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Earth as a Celestial Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.1 Earth’s Shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.2 Size of the Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.3 Land and Water Surface of Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 Physical Characteristics of Land . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3.1 Tectonic Landforms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3.2 Erosive Landforms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3.3 Concept of Relief . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3.4 Significance of Relief. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3.5 Classification of Relief. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3.6 Genetic Types of Relief (Erosive, Depositional) . . . . . . . . 7
1.3.7 Topographic Relief Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.3.8 Morphometric Elements of Relief. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.4 Questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2 Representation of Land on Map. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.1 Concept, Properties, Purpose, Classification and Elements. . . . . . . 25
2.1.1 Concept of Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.1.2 Properties of Maps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.1.3 Purpose and Significance of Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.1.4 Classification of Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.1.5 Elements of Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
vii
viii Contents
2.2 Questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3 Mathematical Elements of Maps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.1 Cartographic Projections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.1.1 Concept of Cartographic Projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.1.2 Classification of Cartographic Projections . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.1.3 Gauss–Krüger Projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.1.4 UTM Projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.1.5 UTM Grid. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.2 Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.2.1 Principal and Fractional Scale. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.2.2 Designation of Scale on Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.2.3 Numerical Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.2.4 Graphical Scale or Scale Bar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.2.5 Scale in a Form of Explanation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.3 Map Border . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.3.1 Types of Map Borders. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.3.2 Content of Map Borders. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.3.3 Inter-border Content. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.3.4 Extra-border Content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.3.5 Border of Enclosed Maps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.4 Questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
4 Geographic Elements of Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
4.1 Relief as a Map Element. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
4.1.1 Methods of Cartographic Relief Mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
4.1.2 Symbols for Depicting Relief on Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.2 Hydrographic Elements on Maps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.2.1 Representation of Water Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.2.2 Representation of Water Streams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
4.2.3 Representation of Water Objects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
4.2.4 Cartographic Symbols for Representation of
Hydrographic Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
4.3 Land and Vegetation as Map Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
4.3.1 Concept and Significance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
4.3.2 Classification of Land and Vegetation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
4.3.3 Cartographic Representation of Land and Vegetation. . . . . 75
4.3.4 Cartographic Symbols for Representation of Land
and Vegetation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.4 Settlements as Map Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.4.1 Significance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Contents ix
4.4.2 Classification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.4.3 Cartographic Representation of Settlements. . . . . . . . . . . . 78
4.5 Objects as Map Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
4.5.1 Significance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
4.5.2 Classification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
4.5.3 Cartographic Representation of Objects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
4.6 Communications as Map Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
4.6.1 Significance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
4.6.2 Cartographic Representation of Communications. . . . . . . . 80
4.7 Borders as Map Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
4.7.1 Significance of Borders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
4.7.2 Classification of Borders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
4.8 Geographic Names and Captions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
4.8.1 Classification of Geographic Names and Captions . . . . . . . 82
4.8.2 Alphanumeric Symbols for Names and Captions . . . . . . . . 82
4.8.3 Orthography and Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.8.4 Captions on Foreign Territories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4.9 Questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
5 Cartometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
5.1 In Place of an Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
5.2 Determining Coordinates of a Point. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
5.2.1 Determining Geographic Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
5.2.2 Determining Rectangular Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
5.2.3 Determining Polar Coordinates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
5.3 Measuring Distances on a Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
5.4 Determining Immediate Distances on the Ground. . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
5.5 Measuring Surface on a Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
5.6 Measuring Angles on a Map. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
5.6.1 Measuring Horizontal Angles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
5.6.2 Measuring Vertical Angles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
5.7 Ground Profile and Its Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
5.8 Questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
6 Orientation in Geographical Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
6.1 Concept of Orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
6.2 Types of Orientation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
6.2.1 Geographic Orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
6.2.2 Topographic Orientation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
6.2.3 Tactical Orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
6.3 Ways of Orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
6.3.1 On-Ground Orientation Without a Map. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116