Avian Medicine, 3e

707 Pages·2016·468.985 MB·English

by  Jaime Samour MVZ PhD Dip ECAMS

AVIAN THIRD EDITION
MEDICINE
EDITED BY
Jaime Samour,
MVZ (Hons), PhD, Dipl ECZM (Avian)
Director, Wildlife Division, Wrsan,
Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
3251 Riverport Lane
St. Louis, Missouri 63043
AVIAN MEDICINE, THIRD EDITION ISBN: 978-0-7234-3832-8
Copyright © 2016, Elsevier Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
Previous editions copyrighted 2000, 2008.
David Sanchez-Migallon Guzman retains copyright for the sections “Analgesia”, “Hypothermia”, and
“Anesthetic emergencies” in Chapter 7: “Anesthesia and Analgesia”; the section “Use and applications of plates
for fracture repair” in Chapter 12: “Orthopedic Surgery”; and the sections “Disorders of the cardiovascular
system” and “Disorders of the nervous system” in Chapter 13 “Systemic Diseases”.—© 2016 David Sanchez-
Migallon Guzman. Published by Elsevier Limited. All rights reserved.
No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or
mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without
permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further information about the
Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance
Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions.
This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher
(other than as may be noted herein).
Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden
our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become
necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and
using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information
or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for
whom they have a professional responsibility.
With respect to any drug or pharmaceutical products identified, readers are advised to check the most
current information provided (i) on procedures featured or (ii) by the manufacturer of each product to be
administered, to verify the recommended dose or formula, the method and duration of administration,
and contraindications. It is the responsibility of practitioners, relying on their own experience and
knowledge of their patients, to make diagnoses, to determine dosages and the best treatment for each
individual patient, and to take all appropriate safety precautions.
To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume
any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability,
negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas
contained in the material herein.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Avian medicine (Samour)
Avian medicine / edited by Jaime Samour.—Third edition.
p. ; cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-7234-3832-8 (hardback : alk. paper)
I. Samour, Jaime, editor. II. Title.
[DNLM: 1. Bird Diseases. 2. Birds. SF 994]
SF994
636.5′0896–dc23
2015032018
Content Strategy Director: Penny Rudolph
Content Strategist: Brandi Graham
Associate Content Development Specialist: Laura Klein
Publishing Services Manager: Hemamalini Rajendrababu
Project Manager: Manchu Mohan
Senior Book Designer: Margaret Reid
Printed in China
Last digit is the print number: 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
I would like to dedicate the 3rd edition of Avian Medicine to my wife
Merle with my most heartfelt gratitude for her support and understanding to
the professional and man in me; your unreserved and unconditional love over
the past 20 years is a true reflection of who you are. To my sons Omar and
Adam and my daughters Miriam and Yasmeen with my deepest love and
expecting that one day they will also follow the teachings of my boyhood hero,
Jim Corbett, and in his own words, “try and make this world a better place for
others to live in.” (Jim Corbett, 1875-1955, Naini Tal, India).
Jaime Samour
Wildlife Division, Wrsan
Abu Dhabi
United Arab Emirates, 2015
C O N T R I B U TO R S
M.M. Apo, BCs, ACS L. Crosta, DVM, PhD J.C. Howlett, RVN, BSc (Hons),
Administrative Assistant, Wildlife Division, Veterinari Montevecchia, Dip Nat Sci
Wrsan, Montevecchia (LC), Italy Al Ain Zoo,
Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates Al Ain, United Arab Emirates
F.J. Dein, VMD, MS
T.A. Bailey, BSc, BVSc, MRCVS, Cert Zoo School of Veterinary Medicine, J. Kinne, Dr med vet, Cert Vet Path, Cert
Med, Dipl ECZM (Avian), MSc (Wild University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, Trop Vet
Animal Health), PhD United States of America Head Department of Pathology,
Wildlife Consultant, Goetre Farm, Central Veterinary Research Laboratory,
Pembrokeshire, UK A.B. del Rio, DVM, PhD, Dipl CLOVE Dubai, United Arab Emirates
Department of Medicine and Animal
B. Barca Ruibal, LicVet, CertZooMed, Surgery, Professor M.E. Krautwald Junghanns,
MSc (Wild Animal Health), MPhil, Ophthalmology Services Chief, Dr med vet, Dr med vet habil
MRCVS Veterinary Teaching Hospital, Murcia Dipl ECZM (Avian), National
Al Aseefa Falcon Hospital, University, Approved Specialist for Birds and
Dubai, United Arab Emirates Murcia, Spain Reptiles,
Selected Member of the National Academy
J.V. Baskar, BVSc R. Doneley, BVSc, FANZCVS (Avian of Sciences, Leopoldina,
Senior Veterinarian, Health) CMAVA Director of Clinic for Birds and Reptiles,
Central Veterinary Research Laboratory, Head Avian and Exotic Pet Services, University of Leipzig,
Dubai, United Arab Emirates University of Queensland Veterinary Leipzig, Germany
Medical Centre,
H. Beaufrère, Dr med vet, PhD, The University of Queensland, O. Krone, Dr med vet
Diplomate ACZM, ABVP (Avian), Gatton, Queensland, Australia Leibniz Institute for Zoo and Wildlife
ECZM (Avian) Research, Department of Wildlife
Service Chief, Avian and Exotic Service, N.A. Forbes, BVetMed, CBiol, MIBiol, Diseases,
Health Sciences Centre, Ontario Veterinary Dipl ECZM (Avian) Berlin, Germany
College, Vets Now Referrals,
University of Guelph, Ontario, Canada Swindon, UK M.P.C. Lawton, BVetMed;
CertVOphthal; CertLAS; CBiol; MSB;
Professor J.E. Cooper, DTVM, FRCPath, B. Gartrell, BVSc, PhD, MANZCVSc DZooMed; FRCVS
FSB, CBiol, FRCVS (Avian Health) Lawton & Stoakes Veterinary Surgeons,
RCVS Specialist in Veterinary Pathology, Institute of Veterinary, Animal & Biomedical Harold Wood,
Diplomate European College of Sciences, Essex, UK
Veterinary Pathologists, European Massey University, New Zealand
Veterinary Specialist Zoological C. Liu, PhD
Medicine; Visiting Professor, Faculty of S. Hammer, Dr med vet Cell Biologist, Central Veterinary Research
Veterinary Medicine, University of Certified Specialist in Zoo and Wild Laboratory,
Nairobi, Kenya, Animals, Dubai, United Arab Emirates
Department of Veterinary Medicine, Director, Zoo Goerlitz,
University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK Goerlitz, Germany M.N.F. Magno, DVM
Senior Veterinary Officer,
M.E. Cooper, LLB, FLS Professor J. M. Hatt, Dr med vet, Wildlife Division, Wrsan,
Solicitor (not in private practice); Visiting MSc, Dipl ACZM, Dipl ECZM Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
Lecturer, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, (Avian)
University of Nairobi, Kenya; Honorary Clinic Director and Senior Veterinarian of A. Melillo, Dr med vet
Research Fellow, Durrell Institute of Zurich Zoo, Clinic for Zoo Animals, Omniavet Veterinary Clinic,
Conservation and Ecology (DICE), The Exotic Pets and Wildlife, University of Rome, Italy
University of Kent, Canterbury, Kent, UK Zürich,
Zürich, Switzerland D. Monks, BVSc (Hons), CertZooMed,
P. Coutteel, DVM FANZCVSc (Avian Health), Dip ECZM
Clinic TRIGENIO, M.G. Hawkins, VMD Dip ABVP (Avian) (Avian)
Nijlen, Belgium Department of Medicine and Epidemiology, Brisbane Bird and Exotics Veterinary
School of Veterinary Medicine, Service, Brisbane,
M. Cowan, BVSc (Hons I), MANZCVS University of California, Queensland, Australia
(Avian Health) Davis, California, USA
Brisbane Bird and Exotics Veterinary A. Montesinos, LV, MSc
Service, C. Hebel, Dr med vet Centro Veterinario Los Sauces,
Brisbane, Queensland, Australia Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Bavaria, Germany Madrid, Spain
v
vi CONTRIBUTORS
K. Morgan, BVSc, MANZCVS (Avian M.D. Saggese, DVM, MS, PhD Y.R.A. van Zeeland, DVM, MVR, PhD,
Health), PGDipVCS, PhD College of Veterinary Medicine, Dip. ECZM (Avian, Small Mammal),
Institute of Veterinary, Animal & Biomedical Western University of Health Sciences, European Specialist in Zoological
Sciences, Pomona, California, USA Medicine (Avian)
Massey University, New Zealand Division of Zoological Medicine,
J. Samour, MVZ (Hons), PhD, Dipl Department of Clinical Sciences of
J.L. Naldo, DVM ECZM (Avian) Companion Animals,
Nad Al Shiba Veterinary Hospital, Director, Wildlife Division, Wrsan, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht
Dubai, United Arab Emirates Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirate University,
Utrecht, The Netherlands
J. Paul-Murphy, DVM Dip ACZM, Dip D. Sanchez-Migallon Guzman,
ACAW LV, MS, Dipl ECZM (Avian, Small P.M. Wencel, DVM
Department of Medicine and Epidemiology, Mammal), Dipl ACZM Avi Expert Veterinary Clinic,
School of Veterinary Medicine, The Companion Exotic Animal Medicine Lublin, Poland
University of California, Service,
Davis, California, USA University of California Davis School of Professor U. Wernery, Priv Doz Dr Dr
Veterinary Medicine, habil
M. Pees, Dr med vet, Dipl ECZM (Avian, Davis, California, USA Scientific Director, Central Veterinary
Herpetology) Research Laboratory,
Clinic for Birds and Reptiles, University of P. Sandmeier, Dr med vet, Dipl ECZM Dubai, United Arab Emirates
Leipzig, (Avian)
Leipzig, Germany Small Animal and Avian Practice, M.B. Wernick, Dr med vet, Dipl ECZM
Baden-Daettwil, Switzerland (Avian)
M.A. Peirce, PhD, CBiol, FSB, FZS ExoticVet GmbH,
MP International Consultancy, P. Schnitzer, Dr med vet Jona, Switzerland
Bexhill-on-Sea, Veterinari Montevecchia,
East Sussex, UK Montevecchia (LC), Italy M. Ziccardi, DVM, MPVM, PhD
Oiled Wildlife Care Network,
H. Pendl, Dr med vet N.J. Schoemaker, DVM, PhD, Karen C. Drayer Wildlife Health
PendlLab, Diagnostic Microscopy, Dipl ECZM (Small Mammal, Avian), Center,
Hematology, Cytology, Histopathology Dipl ABVP (Avian) One Health Institute, School of Veterinary
in Birds and Reptiles, European Veterinary Specialist in Zoological Medicine, University of California,
Steinhausen, Switzerland Medicine (Small Mammal), Davis, California, USA
Division of Zoological Medicine,
J. Perlman, PhD Department of Clinical Sciences of P. Zsivanovits, Dr med vet, Dipl ECZM
Wildlife Nutrition Consultants, Companion Animals, (Avian)
Alexander, Arkansas, USA Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht Tierärztliche Praxis für Vogelmedizin,
University, Wahlstedt, Germany
D. Phalen, DVM, PhD, Dipl ABVP Utrecht, The Netherlands
(Avian) P. Zucca, DVM, PhD, BSc Psych
Wildlife Health and Conservation Centre, Professor Dr. R.K. Schuster, Zooanthropology Unit, Healthcare Services
Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Dip EVPC, FTA Parasitology, FTA Agency,
Sydney, Tropical Veterinary Medicine Trieste, Italy
Sydney, Australia Head of Parasitology Department,
Central Veterinary Research Professor P. Zwart, DVM, PhD, Dipl
J. Ponder, DVM Laboratory, ECZM (Herpetology)
The Raptor Center, College of Veterinary Dubai, United Arab Emirates Diplomate European College of
Medicine, Veterinary Pathologists (ECVP),
University of Minnesota, C. Silvanose, BSc, MLT, DPath, PhD Diplomate European College of
St. Paul, Minnesota, USA Laboratory Manager, Dubai Falcon Zoological Medicine (ECZM;
Hospital, Herpetology),
Professor P.T. Redig, DVM, PhD Dubai, United Arab Emirates Professor Emeritus in Diseases of Exotic
Director Emeritus, The Raptor Center, Animals,
College of Veterinary Medicine, L. Timossi, Dr med vet Department of Veterinary Pathology,
University of Minnesota, Veterinari Montevecchia, Utrecht University,
St. Paul, Minnesota, USA Montevecchia (LC), Italy Utrecht, The Netherlands
F O R E WO R D
I am writing this as my wife, Margaret, and I sit at Ngutuni Lodge, in finger” touch of those who keep birds and the increasingly sophisti-
Kenya, overlooking the water hole. The country is in the middle of a cated specialist abilities and techniques of veterinarians who seek to
prolonged drought. The air is alive with the sound of thirsty African keep them healthy.
elephants (Loxodonta africana), zebra (Equus quagga burchellii), and It will come as no surprise that I welcome this latest edition of Jaime
buffalo (Syncerus caffer) jostling for access to a drink from this much Samour’s book. My reasons for this are twofold. For a start, it will do
depleted water resource. Also at the pool, at a respectful distance from much for birds in captivity. Aviculture has been practised for thou-
the mammals, are European white storks (Ciconia ciconia), Egyptian sands of years and has been a feature of every civilization for which a
geese (Alopochen aegyptiacus), and crowned plovers (Vanellus corona- recorded history exists. Nearly 40 years ago, in a now often forgotten
tus), Namaqua doves (Oena capensis) have flown past and a pallid manuscript, “The earliest records of aviculture” (Avicultural Magazine
harrier (Circus macrourus) is circling overhead. Red-billed oxpeckers [1978] 84[4]), the Canadian R. M. Allison argued that the keeping of
(Buphagus erythrorhynchus) periodically fly from the backs of the birds is deeply rooted human behavior—and went on to lament that
buffalo, land in the mud, circle in the air, and return to their hosts. this is too often ignored by “wildlife officialdom,” to the detriment of
Occasional flocks of red-billed quelea (Quelea quelea) descend in a many otherwise well-intentioned conservation policies.
cloud; they touch the water and, in a moment, are away again. The practice of Avian Medicine, in contrast—even allowing for
The scene reminds me of the words and thinking of one of my early seminal studies on diseases of poultry, pigeons, and falcons in
greatest heroes. This was John Hunter (1728-1793), the anatomist and Mesopotamia (now Iraq) and a few other locations in the Middle
surgeon, who was instrumental in the establishment of Britain’s first East—has really only come of age as a specialist, evidence-based disci-
veterinary college in London in 1791. Hunter was a countryman, with pline during the past three decades. The many contributors to the
a keen knowledge of animals, plants, and the environment. He famously different editions of Jaime Samour’s Avian Medicine are amongst those
stated in his teaching that “Nothing in nature stands alone.” He thereby who can take pride in this achievement.
recognized at an early stage of his life, before the concept was fashion- The second reason I applaud the publication of the third edition of
able, that there is an interconnectedness between individual organisms, this book is because, as intimated above, its beneficial influence will
other species, and the habitats that they share. not be restricted to birds in captivity. The advances in veterinary and
So what is the significance of all this to the third edition of Dr biological knowledge crystallised in its text and often depicted graphi-
Jaime Samour’s internationally acclaimed Avian Medicine? It is rele- cally in its fine illustrations will, without doubt, contribute to the
vant because the book is not only about diseases of captive birds, protection and conservation of the Class Aves on a global scale. The
how to diagnose ailments, and how to carry out treatment. This is importance of understanding and practicing “ecosystem health” has
also a scholarly treatise concerned with the health and welfare of never been more relevant. We need to look in a holistic way at the many
birds. Its contributors, who hail from diverse countries, include vet- current threats to biodiversity, to species survival, and to human well-
erinarians and biologists. Many of these are active in conservation. being. The answer to diagnosing and treating most of these afflictions
As such, although the primary aim of the book is to assist those lies in identifying and correcting the multifarious insults that we are
working with birds in captivity, the information that it contains can wreaking on our planet. This will not be an easy task, but the sooner
readily be translated into practical assistance to the Class Aves on a the complex mosaic of manifestations (“clinical signs”) that constitute
much wider scale. global decline can be fully understood, the sooner the healing process
Wild (free-living) birds are threatened by habitat destruction, can start. Scholarly texts on individual taxa have an important part to
malicious persecution, poisoning, and infectious diseases. Attempts play, especially where they address questions of health and disease.
to halt the decline or disappearance of any one taxon require the Jaime Samour’s contribution, through skillfully editing and executing
input of skilled personnel from many disciplines, both professional this book and focusing attention on the needs of birds, is an indispens-
and “amateur,” including ecologists and field naturalists. To these, able component.
however, need to be added others, especially avian biologists and John E. Cooper, DTVM, FRCPath, FSB, CBiol, FRCVS,
aviculturists. As populations of wild birds decline, the need to Diplomate of the European College of Veterinary Pathologists,
manage them becomes crucial. Such management may be carried Diplomate of the European College of Zoological Medicine
out in situ, by (for instance) the provision of nest boxes or supple- Wildlife Health Services (UK),
mentary feeding; or ex situ, implying captive breeding. These and The Durrell Institute of Conservation and Ecology (DICE),
other techniques necessitate both the practical skills and “green The University of Kent, Canterbury, England
vii
P R E FAC E
My interest in the wild and its inhabitants began when I was a young of London. This extended over time to basically all major zoological
child growing up in my native country, El Salvador. There was a cinema and avicultural collections in mainland Great Britain and lead to speci-
across the street from my home where I used to spend many Saturday men exchanges, a kind of marriage bureau if you like, between collec-
afternoons watching movies of African jungle adventures. I remember tions to maximize captive breeding. This was all possible by the support
vividly every detail of each movie, the sights of which still flash across of my mentor, Mr. David Jones, to whom I will always be grateful for
my eyes and the sounds of which still resound in my ears after all this believing in me and giving me this magnificent opportunity.
time. Later, my interest in wildlife medicine was inspired from watching My interest in sex determination lead to my involvement with cage
a television series of a wildlife veterinarian running a wildlife rescue design, nutrition and diets, artificial incubation and rearing methods,
and rehabilitation center in Africa. He always wore safari-style khaki- and then to artificial insemination. My other mentor, Dr. Christine
colored clothing and a matching hat. I was always amazed to see him Hawkey, then suggested that I should pursue a higher academic degree.
using his remote darting rifle to capture a full-grown African leopard I had never thought about this before, but it was a very exciting devel-
(Panthera pardus) and send it into a deep sleep in a blink of an eye. opment. To make a long story short, instead of spending six months
Little did I know then that the eerie sound in the background of at the London Zoo as originally planned, I ended up staying for the
those African jungle adventure movies came from a kookaburra better part of 7 years. My PhD centered on avian reproductive physiol-
(Dacelo sp.), a kingfisher native to Australia and New Guinea, or that ogy covering areas as diverse as the anatomy of the cloaca of the
the snake sliding across a branch was a boa constrictor (Boa constrictor) budgerigars (Melopsittacus undulatus), the gonadal cycle, semen col-
originally from Central and South America, or the elephants used in lection techniques, semen cryopreservation, and artificial insemina-
the movies were Indian elephants (Elephas maximus indicus) with large tion. The first part of the study consisted of using the budgerigar as a
plastic ears. Yet again, little did I know that there has never been an biological model to develop techniques that could be applied to endan-
anesthetic agent, as used by the wildlife veterinarian in the television gered species. The second part consisted of the applied aspect of the
series that could send a full-grown leopard into a deep sleep in a blink study using the peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus) as a model.
of an eye. Over time I realized that this was all to do with Hollywood I would have loved to stay in England after completing my PhD.
and the strategies and paraphernalia used for movie making. Then the My dream was to establish an avian breeding center outside London
time came to move on. to breed species such as the highly endangered Rothschild’s mynah
I was still in high school when I started looking for opportunities (Leucopsar rothschildi), the Mauritius kestrel (Falco punctatus), and
to go abroad to study veterinary medicine in wildlife. It was shortly other species in need of integrating into a captive breeding programs.
after qualifying from veterinary college that the long awaited oppor- Unfortunately at the time, the London Zoo was undergoing severe
tunity came with an acceptance letter to undertake a residency for six financial difficulties and the general mood was somber and uncertain.
months at the world famous London Zoo at Regent’s Park. I arrived in So with great sadness I left London at the end of 1987 to take a position
London one day in late October 1981 with a copy of the Oxford English in the Middle East. I still have the drawings I made of the proposed
dictionary in one hand and a suitcase full of thermal clothing in the endangered avian breeding center. Those drawings are all that is left of
other, intending to begin a new phase in my career and to fulfill my my dream.
long awaited dream. At London Zoo every day was different and full My association with falcons and falconry in the Middle East started
of exciting opportunities to learn. For instance, in the morning I could in 1983 when I was asked to fly to the State of Bahrain to attend a
be assisting with the examination of a large silverback gorilla (Gorilla bilateral bumblefoot case in a saker (Falco cherrug) falcon that belonged
gorilla), at noontime helping with the collection of blood samples from to the King of Saudi Arabia. If I say that from that day onward I became
a giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca), and in the early afternoon fascinated with falcons it would be an understatement and I have been
attending to a skin condition in a white rhino (Ceratotherium simum). devoted to falcon medicine ever since. Consequently, during my entire
I had never been so fascinated in my entire life. professional career spanning the past 30 years or so, I have strived to
I am not sure when it came to me, but gradually I became aware promote falcon medicine as a true specialty.
that somewhere in the darker corners of all the excitement and the This book is a testament to the advances, not only in falcon medi-
attention were the birds, the reptiles, the amphibians, the fishes, and cine, but also in Avian Medicine in general worldwide. In the previous
the invertebrates. Soon I began to understand that there was much editions there has been a great emphasis on using photographic mate-
more to zoological collections than mammalian species. I was privi- rial from species seldom included in other books such as falcons and
leged to visit a great number of zoological collections across Great bustards. I have tried, together with the group of the most generous
Britain and continental Europe, and I encountered the same situation contributors I have ever worked with, to balance this with other species.
in almost every collection. Therefore while mammalian medicine and I sincerely hope the result is satisfactory to the reader. You will notice
husbandry was developing at gigantic strides and receiving all the some welcome additions to the table of contents as well as new con-
attention, this was not the case for the lower classes. This appeared to tributors from every corner of the world.
follow the same trend everywhere in the zoological world. It was then I would like most wholeheartedly to wish the best to all students,
that I decided to center my attention on Avian Medicine and hus- veterinary surgeons, and those who acquire this book. May Avian
bandry and to try to make a difference. Medicine continue inspiring many to embrace this unique specialty.
Very early in my stay at the zoo I was asked to learn how to use Jaime Samour
the existing endoscopy equipment at the Animal Hospital, since we Wildlife Division
were going to use this relatively new technique to carry out a sex- Wrsan, Abu Dhabi
determination project at the two collections of the Zoological Society United Arab Emirates, 2015
ix
AC K N OW L E D G M E N T S
I would like to thank Penny Rudolph, Content Strategy Director; Jolynn Gower, Content Development
Manager; Brandi Graham, Content Development Specialist; Laura Klein, Associate Content Development
Specialist; Deepthi Unni, Team Lead Production; Manchu Mohan, Project Manager; Katie Gutierrez,
Content Coordinator; and Anna Schook, Processing and Development from Elsevier for their support,
patience, and understanding throughout the production of this book.
I also would like to thank HH Sheikh Sultan bin Zayed Al Nahyan, the son of a true conservationist, for
his outstanding interest and dedication to preserving the flora and fauna of the United Arab Emirates and
for his continuing support to the activities of the Veterinary Science Department, Wildlife Division, Wrsan.
Jaime Samour
Wildlife Division
Wrsan, Abu Dhabi
United Arab Emirates
January 2015
x
1 
Housing, Environment, and Public Awareness
Melodiya Nyela Magno
The fundamental needs of housing and the right environment for birds  legs (e.g., flamingos, storks, cranes). Birds may even escape from an 
are not too different from that of humans. Housing for captive birds  open aviary by jumping or flying over fenced enclosures, making 
must provide protection from natural elements, changing weather, and  capture difficult.
natural predators; provide a sense of security; and must reflect a rea- The type of materials used in constructing aviary and aviary furni-
sonable degree of sanitation. Most important, although commonly  ture is important. Newly installed galvanized wire may predispose 
overlooked or ignored, is that the environment within the aviary or  psittacine birds to zinc toxicosis because they instinctively cling to cage 
enclosure must encourage natural behavior including grooming, for- mesh using their beaks. Washing and brushing down newly installed 
aging, and breeding. Satisfying these fundamental needs promotes the  mesh using vinegar before transferring the birds helps minimize such 
health and well-being of birds, thus maximizing their quality of life in  cases (Fig. 1-5). Small cages can also be constructed with temporary 
captivity (Fig. 1-1). sliding partitions that can be removed gradually to join two adjacent 
cages and increase the space. Aviaries should be constructed taking into 
CAGE AND AVIARY DESIGN consideration adequate exposure to the sun and minimizing direct 
strong wind.
When designing an aviary for any species of bird, aviculturists com- Aviary design must incorporate the needs of the species housed. 
monly  encounter  conflicting  views  ranging  from  promoting  the  Cold moist conditions can be detrimental to desert species and hot 
esthetic aspect of the aviary, promoting the health and well-being of  conditions may cause problems for species from temperate and cold 
the bird, and providing a functional design that allows adequate clean- climates. Excessively cold conditions are involved in wing-tip edema 
ing and maintenance (Fig. 1-2). However, birds can also adapt to the  syndrome of raptors and in toe frostbite for flamingoes. Translucent 
aviary setup provided by the keeper. Arboreal or tree-dwelling species  panels should be used to allow natural light exposure if enclosures are 
that descend occasionally to the ground to drink or bathe, such as the  totally covered (e.g., seclusion). Alternatively, suitable artificial lighting 
green turaco (Turaco persa), can be seen consistently roosting on a  should be provided.
1-meter high perch in the absence of a tall tree or a very high perch  In hot climates, birds must be kept cool. In the Middle East, outdoor 
(Fig. 1-3). Birds unable to adapt to a new and unsecured environment  falcon aviaries often have water-cooling systems at both ends and fans 
eventually develop signs of stress and chronic diseases and may even  placed outside to directly cool air to the main perches. Most of the 
die. Indications of stress range from feather plucking (e.g., psittacine  birds cool off by bathing and then sitting near the fan. Many bird 
species), stereotypical behavior, nervousness, and immune suppres- species require indoor air-conditioning accommodation during the 
sion. Excessive aggression related to overcrowding and space con- hotter months of the year (June to September).
straints can also be an issue of concern. An example of this was  Clean air is essential for the welfare of captive birds and keepers 
observed in a small flock of chukar partridges (Alectoris chukar)  alike. Poor ventilation predisposes birds to respiratory infections and 
reported to have individuals displaying torticollis and head tilting.  is considered a major contributory factor in the development of asper-
Newcastle disease was initially suspected; however, this was a case of  gillosis in falcons.
space constraint as aggressive individuals pecked on the lateral aspect  One of the major problems with raptors in captivity is the develop-
of the head of companions leading to ear injury and impaired balanc- ment of bumblefoot (pododermatitis). The cause of this is multifacto-
ing ability. rial, but the type of perch is critical. Perches covered with AstroTurf or 
The design and appearance of cages is important in zoological col- coconut matting are ideal. A choice of perches with different diameters 
lections and bird parks. Ideally, the cage should be covered with black  should be provided for all species of birds that perch, especially 
PVC-coated mesh or painted black to achieve a “see-through effect,”  passerines.
making the interior of the cage stand out and more obvious to viewers  In bird species such as Psittaciformes, digit and pedal injuries can 
(Fig. 1-4). be minimized by constructing double-walled partitions between aviar-
Providing a great degree of freedom is one of the common goals in  ies distanced by a small gap to prevent bites by neighboring birds. For 
designing an aviary. This can be achieved by constructing large land- birds frequently staying on the ground, such as gallinaceous and anser-
scaped aviaries. However, capturing birds housed in such large enclo- iform species, foot injuries can be avoided by providing soft substrate 
sures for regular health checks and prophylaxis can be a challenge and  such as sand and soil instead of concrete floors. The use of mats as 
heightens the risk for injury. In the process of pursuit and capture,  flooring can be dangerous for species that habitually peck on the 
birds could suffer injuries such as neck dislocations and wing or leg  ground, such as ratites, and can lead to foreign-body obstruction of 
fractures. This is particularly important in species with long necks and  the gastrointestinal tract.
1
2 CHAPTER 1 Housing, Environment, and Public Awareness
FIGURE 1-1 Places with consistently good weather such as in the
tropics, do not require indoor facilities to keep the birds from harsh cold
temperature, unlike in temperate regions.
FIGURE 1-3 Arboreal (tree dwelling) species benefit from raised
feeders and should not be fed on the ground.
FIGURE 1-2 A creative way of presenting owls’ aviaries to the visiting
public.
CAGE AND AVIARY MANAGEMENT
FIGURE 1-4 Painting the cage mesh black creates a “see-through”
Eager aviculturists must realize that the moment they decide to house  effect, making the interior of the cage stand out and more visible from
a bird, a creature with a great urge for freedom, in an aviary or cage,  a distance compared with an aviary with unpainted mesh. Note the
they must take full stewardship over its environment (Fig. 1-6). Essen- difference between the aviary in the back with its mesh painted black
tially, the aviculturist must realize that a cage or an aviary is a con- with the one in the front.
trolled environment. The degree of control over this closed environment 
dictates the extent and gravity of health conditions that would arise 
throughout the captive life of a bird. water after raining or cleaning because this could predispose birds to 
At the very start of aviary planning and construction, a proactive  drinking contaminated water. However, the aviculturist must not con-
approach must be made by creating a setup that reinforces efficient  struct a sterile aviary that is easy to clean and disinfect, but that is 
cleaning and maintenance of the aviary. This begins with the selection  uninteresting and boring for the birds.
of appropriate construction material because this can dictate the  Feeding birds in captivity entails the provision of a variety of food 
degree of sanitation that is required and feasible. Wood and other  items, optimal food quality, adequate food hygiene, and an efficient 
porous materials retain contamination and are difficult to sanitize.  feeding strategy. It is important to provide the critical nutrients specific 
Gravel and sand floor substrate can be more challenging to sanitize  for the species in the collection. Pesquet parrots (Psittrichas fulgidus), 
compared with a concrete floor. The design of the ground of the aviary  for instance, require a diet that is high in vitamin A and fiber; other-
should ensure that the flooring is leveled and prevents stagnation of  wise, they succumb more easily to candidiasis. Food hygiene can be