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Autonomous Tracked Robots in Planar Off-Road Conditions: Modelling, Localization, and Motion Control PDF

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Studies in Systems, Decision and Control 6 Ramón González Francisco Rodríguez José Luis Guzmán Autonomous Tracked Robots in Planar Off -Road Conditions Modelling, Localization, and Motion Control Studies in Systems, Decision and Control Volume 6 Serieseditor JanuszKacprzyk,PolishAcademyofSciences,Warsaw,Poland e-mail:[email protected] Forfurthervolumes: http://www.springer.com/series/13304 AboutthisSeries The series "Studies in Systems, Decision and Control" (SSDC) covers both new developmentsand advances, as well as the state of the art, in the variousareas of broadly perceived systems, decision making and control- quickly, up to date and with a high quality. The intent is to cover the theory, applications, and perspec- tives on the state of the art and future developmentsrelevant to systems, decision making,control,complexprocessesandrelatedareas,asembeddedinthefieldsof engineering,computerscience,physics,economics,socialandlifesciences,aswell astheparadigmsandmethodologiesbehindthem.Theseriescontainsmonographs, textbooks,lecturenotesandeditedvolumesinsystems, decisionmakingandcon- trol spanning the areas of Cyber-PhysicalSystems, AutonomousSystems, Sensor Networks,ControlSystems,EnergySystems,AutomotiveSystems,BiologicalSys- tems,VehicularNetworkingandConnectedVehicles,AerospaceSystems,Automa- tion, Manufacturing, Smart Grids, Nonlinear Systems, Power Systems, Robotics, SocialSystems,EconomicSystemsandother.Ofparticularvaluetoboththecon- tributorsandthereadershiparetheshortpublicationtimeframeandtheworld-wide distribution and exposure which enable both a wide and rapid dissemination of researchoutput. · Ramón González Francisco Rodríguez José Luis Guzmán Autonomous Tracked Robots in Planar Off-Road Conditions Modelling, Localization, and Motion Control ABC RamónGonzález JoséLuisGuzmán DepartmentofComputerScience DepartmentofComputerScience UniversityofAlmeria UniversityofAlmeria Ctra.Sacramentos/n Ctra.Sacramentos/n 04120Almeria 04120Almeria Spain Spain E-mail:[email protected] FranciscoRodríguez DepartmentofComputerScience UniversityofAlmeria Ctra.Sacramentos/n 04120Almeria Spain Additionalmaterialtothisbookcanbedownloadedfromhttp://extras.springer.com ISSN2198-4182 ISSN2198-4190 (electronic) ISBN978-3-319-06037-8 ISBN978-3-319-06038-5 (eBook) DOI10.1007/978-3-319-06038-5 SpringerChamHeidelbergNewYorkDordrechtLondon LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2014935086 (cid:2)c SpringerInternationalPublishingSwitzerland2014 Thisworkissubjecttocopyright.AllrightsarereservedbythePublisher,whetherthewholeorpartof thematerialisconcerned,specificallytherightsoftranslation,reprinting,reuseofillustrations,recitation, broadcasting,reproductiononmicrofilmsorinanyotherphysicalway,andtransmissionorinformation storageandretrieval,electronicadaptation,computersoftware,orbysimilarordissimilarmethodology nowknownorhereafterdeveloped.Exemptedfromthislegalreservationarebriefexcerptsinconnection with reviews or scholarly analysis or material supplied specifically for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work. Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the Copyright Law of the Publisher’slocation,initscurrentversion,andpermissionforusemustalwaysbeobtainedfromSpringer. PermissionsforusemaybeobtainedthroughRightsLinkattheCopyrightClearanceCenter.Violations areliabletoprosecutionundertherespectiveCopyrightLaw. Theuseofgeneraldescriptivenames,registerednames,trademarks,servicemarks,etc.inthispublication doesnotimply,evenintheabsenceofaspecificstatement,thatsuchnamesareexemptfromtherelevant protectivelawsandregulationsandthereforefreeforgeneraluse. Whiletheadviceandinformationinthisbookarebelievedtobetrueandaccurateatthedateofpub- lication,neithertheauthorsnortheeditorsnorthepublishercanacceptanylegalresponsibilityforany errorsoromissionsthatmaybemade.Thepublishermakesnowarranty,expressorimplied,withrespect tothematerialcontainedherein. Printedonacid-freepaper SpringerispartofSpringerScience+BusinessMedia(www.springer.com) You have to test your stuff a lot, test it just like you’re going to fly it, and then fly it just like you tested it. Professor Steven W. Squyres Principal Investigator Mars Exploration Rover mission Contents 1 Introduction ......................................... 1 1.1 The Importance of Tracked Vehicles ..................... 1 1.1.1 Tracked Vehicles along History.................... 1 1.1.2 Autonomous Tracked Vehicles..................... 2 1.2 Motivation and Contributions........................... 5 1.3 Outline of this Monograph.............................. 8 1.4 Assumptions and Limitations ........................... 8 2 Modelling Tracked Robots in Planar Off-Road Conditions........................................... 11 2.1 Introduction .......................................... 11 2.2 Extended Kinematic Model with Slip .................... 14 2.3 Extended Trajectory Tracking Error Model with Slip....... 16 2.4 Discrete-Time Trajectory Tracking Error Model and Model Uncertainties ................................... 20 2.5 State and Input Constraints ............................ 21 2.6 Estimating Slip ....................................... 22 2.7 Results............................................... 23 2.7.1 Testing the Sensor Performance ................... 23 2.7.2 Model Validation................................ 25 2.7.3 Additive Uncertainty Identification ................ 29 2.8 Conclusions........................................... 32 3 Localization of Tracked Robots in Planar Off-Road Conditions........................................... 35 3.1 Introduction .......................................... 35 3.2 Localization Using Visual Odometry ..................... 37 3.2.1 Template Matching.............................. 39 3.2.2 Estimating Robot Displacement................... 41 3.2.3 Estimating Robot Orientation: Visual Compass ..... 42 3.2.4 LocalizationApproachCombiningVisualOdometry with Visual Compass ............................ 44 3.2.5 Computational Aspects of Template Matching ...... 44 VIII Contents 3.3 Results............................................... 47 3.3.1 Testing the Sensor Performance ................... 47 3.3.2 Localization Strategies Validation ................. 49 3.4 Conclusions........................................... 56 4 Adaptive Motion Controllers for Tracked Robots ....... 57 4.1 Introduction .......................................... 57 4.2 Slip Compensation Adaptive Controller Using Dynamic Feedback Linearization................................. 59 4.3 Slip Compensation Adaptive Controller Using an LMI-Based Approach .................................. 61 4.3.1 Problem Statement .............................. 63 4.3.2 Asymptotic Stability and Performance ............. 65 4.3.3 Input Constraints ............................... 65 4.3.4 State Constraints................................ 67 4.3.5 Performance Region ............................. 68 4.3.6 Final Optimization Problem ...................... 68 4.4 Results............................................... 72 4.4.1 Experimental Results ............................ 73 4.5 Conclusions........................................... 82 5 Robust Predictive Motion Controller for Tracked Robots .............................................. 85 5.1 Introduction .......................................... 85 5.2 Problem Statement .................................... 87 5.3 Robust Tube-Based MPC Controller ..................... 88 5.3.1 Local Compensation of System Dynamics .......... 90 5.3.2 Reachable Sets Calculation ....................... 91 5.3.3 Terminal Constraints for MPC .................... 92 5.3.4 MPC Strategy .................................. 93 5.4 Results............................................... 94 5.4.1 Experiment 1. Circular Trajectory................. 94 5.4.2 Experiment 2. U-shaped Trajectory................ 99 5.5 Conclusions........................................... 104 6 Conclusions and Future Works ........................ 107 6.1 Conclusions........................................... 107 6.2 Future Works ......................................... 109 References............................................... 111 Chapter 1 Introduction This chapter addresses a historical perspective of tracked vehicles and motivates the use of tracked mobile robots. It highlights the main contributions of this monograph. Finally, the main assump- tions and limitations regarding the developed work are explained. 1.1 The Importance of Tracked Vehicles 1.1.1 Tracked Vehicles along History Theoriginsoftrackedvehiclesarecloselymotivatedbytheideaofdeveloping cross-country vehicles, that is, vehicles moving on off-road rough terrains (packed snow, muddy roads, loose sandy soils, etc.). In 1770, a patent by RichardL. Edgeworthfirstly introducedthe conceptofwhat is knowntoday as full-track [6]: “the invention cossets in making portable railways to wheel carriages so that several pieces of wood are connected to the carriage which it moves in regular succession in such a manner that a sufficient length of railing is constantly at rest for the wheels, to roll upon, and that when the wheelshavenearlyapproachedtheextremityofthispartoftherailway,their motionsshalllaydownafreshlengthofrailinfront,theweightofwhichinits descent shall assist in raising such part of the rail as the weeks have already passed over, and thus the pieces of wood which are taken up in the rear are in succession laid in the front, so as to furnish constantly a railway for the weeks to roll on.” By those years none of the inventions became successful products. A further step came with the introduction of internal-combustion engines at the end of the 19th century. In this sense, a clear contribution was the Holt tractor in 1911 (Figure 1.1a). This vehicle was widely used by the British, French, and American armies in World War I for hauling heavy equipment. This successful platform led to the development of war tanks. After the War, the prolific research carried out was applied to agricul- ture. Indeed during the years 1920-1940, many fundamental questions were unfolded such as: the relationship between track and soil, the movement re- R.Gonza´lez,F.Rodr´ıguez,andJ.L.Guzma´n,Autonomous TrackedRobotsin Planar 1 Off-RoadConditions,StudiesinSystems,DecisionandControl6, DOI:10.1007/978-3-319-06038-5_1, (cid:2)c SpringerInternationalPublishingSwitzerland2014 2 1 Introduction sistance, sinkage, wheel dimensions, “ground pressure”, etc. That research led to consider the development of tracked vehicles as a solid discipline [6]. Atthispoint,itisinterestingtointroduceabriefdiscussioncomparingthe performance of wheels and tracks. In this regardthe article [133] constitutes asolidreference.There,afterseveralcomparisonsondifferentterrains(sand, clay, loam), authorsdemonstrate that the thrust developedby a wheeled ve- hicle will generally be lower than that developed by a comparable tracked vehicle, this is particularly noticeable on cohesive soils. This is motivated by the fact that the average normal pressure under the tires of a wheeled vehi- cle will be higher than that under a comparable tracked vehicle. The paper [54] states that the wheeled-vs-track dilemma is rooted in the following fun- damental subjects: the vehicle’s mission, the terrain profile, and the specific vehicularfeatures.Inparticular,themainadvantagesoftrackedvehiclesare: • They offer the best solution for a versatile platform that is required to operateoverdiverseterrainsevenatdifferentweatherconditions.Forthat reason this kind of vehicles are very common in search and rescue opera- tions especially on snow. • They generate low ground pressure, which leads to conserve the natural environment.Thismotivateswhytrackedvehiclesareemployedinagricul- ture(harvesting,planting,orsprayingtasks)andminingactivities(Figure 1.1b, d). • They prevent from sinking, even becoming stuck, into soft ground, there- fore they are ideal vehicles for loose sandy terrains like in military opera- tions(haulingheavyartilleryoraspersonneltransportationunits)(Figure 1.1a, c). 1.1.2 Autonomous Tracked Vehicles It is clear that trackedvehicles comprise a solid and successful way of trans- portation,especiallyinoff-roadconditions.Forthatreason,whenaroboticist thinks about a mobile robotto operate in off-roadconditions one of the first optionsistousetrackedlocomotion.Howeverthetaskofmakingautonomous a (tracked) vehicle leads to consider many challenging issues. Thebehaviourofamobilerobotinoutdooroff-roadconditionsisquitedi- fferentfrom a mobile robotworkingonstructured indoorenvironments. The most important disturbances and inconveniences affecting to off-road mo- bile robots deal with the robot-terrain interactions, such as slip and sinkage phenomena.Thefirstissuetobesolvedisrelatedtotherobotmechanics.Off- road applications generally require robots to travel across unprepared rough terrains. This fact means that proper locomotion mechanisms and on-board sensors should be selected to safely steer the robot autonomously [53, 117]. Furthermore, due to the robot can work in remote or inaccessible scenarios, efficient power units and reliable communication systems are also required. Figure1.2showsseveraltrackedmobilerobotsappliedinchallengingoff-road

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