Atoms, radiation, and radiation protection

2007·15.1 MB·English

by  Turner, J. E. (James Edward)

James E. Turner
Atoms, Radiation, and
Radiation Protection
Third,CompletelyRevisedandEnlargedEdition
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ISBN 978-3-527-40606-7
ToRenate
VII
Contents
PrefacetotheFirstEdition XV
PrefacetotheSecondEdition XVII
PrefacetotheThirdEdition XIX
1 AboutAtomicPhysicsandRadiation 1
1.1 ClassicalPhysics 1
1.2 DiscoveryofXRays 1
1.3 SomeImportantDatesinAtomicandRadiationPhysics 3
1.4 ImportantDatesinRadiationProtection 8
1.5 SourcesandLevelsofRadiationExposure 11
1.6 SuggestedReading 12
2 AtomicStructureandAtomicRadiation 15
2.1 TheAtomicNatureofMatter(ca.1900) 15
2.2 TheRutherfordNuclearAtom 18
2.3 Bohr’sTheoryoftheHydrogenAtom 19
2.4 SemiclassicalMechanics,1913–1925 25
2.5 QuantumMechanics 28
2.6 ThePauliExclusionPrinciple 33
2.7 AtomicTheoryofthePeriodicSystem 34
2.8 Molecules 36
2.9 SolidsandEnergyBands 39
2.10 ContinuousandCharacteristicXRays 40
2.11 AugerElectrons 45
2.12 SuggestedReading 47
2.13 Problems 48
2.14 Answers 53
3 TheNucleusandNuclearRadiation 55
3.1 NuclearStructure 55
Atoms,Radiation,andRadiationProtection.JamesE.Turner
Copyright©2007WILEY-VCHVerlagGmbH&Co.KGaA,Weinheim
ISBN:978-3-527-40606-7
VIII Contents
3.2 NuclearBindingEnergies 58
3.3 AlphaDecay 62
3.4 BetaDecay(β–) 65
3.5 Gamma-RayEmission 68
3.6 InternalConversion 72
3.7 OrbitalElectronCapture 72
3.8 PositronDecay(β+) 75
3.9 SuggestedReading 79
3.10 Problems 80
3.11 Answers 82
4 RadioactiveDecay 83
4.1 Activity 83
4.2 ExponentialDecay 83
4.3 SpecificActivity 88
4.4 SerialRadioactiveDecay 89
SecularEquilibrium(T (cid:1)T ) 89
1 2
GeneralCase 91
TransientEquilibrium(T (cid:1)T ) 91
1 2
NoEquilibrium(T <T ) 93
1 2
4.5 NaturalRadioactivity 96
4.6 RadonandRadonDaughters 97
4.7 SuggestedReading 102
4.8 Problems 103
4.9 Answers 108
5 InteractionofHeavyChargedParticleswithMatter 109
5.1 Energy-LossMechanisms 109
5.2 MaximumEnergyTransferinaSingleCollision 111
5.3 Single-CollisionEnergy-LossSpectra 113
5.4 StoppingPower 115
5.5 SemiclassicalCalculationofStoppingPower 116
5.6 TheBetheFormulaforStoppingPower 120
5.7 MeanExcitationEnergies 121
5.8 TableforComputationofStoppingPowers 123
5.9 StoppingPowerofWaterforProtons 125
5.10 Range 126
5.11 Slowing-DownTime 131
5.12 LimitationsofBethe’sStopping-PowerFormula 132
5.13 SuggestedReading 133
5.14 Problems 134
5.15 Answers 137
Contents IX
6 InteractionofElectronswithMatter 139
6.1 Energy-LossMechanisms 139
6.2 CollisionalStoppingPower 139
6.3 RadiativeStoppingPower 144
6.4 RadiationYield 145
6.5 Range 147
6.6 Slowing-DownTime 148
6.7 ExamplesofElectronTracksinWater 150
6.8 SuggestedReading 155
6.9 Problems 155
6.10 answers 158
7 PhenomenaAssociatedwithCharged-ParticleTracks 159
7.1 DeltaRays 159
7.2 RestrictedStoppingPower 159
7.3 LinearEnergyTransfer(LET) 162
7.4 SpecificIonization 163
7.5 EnergyStraggling 164
7.6 RangeStraggling 167
7.7 MultipleCoulombScattering 169
7.8 SuggestedReading 170
7.9 Problems 171
7.10 Answers 172
8 InteractionofPhotonswithMatter 173
8.1 InteractionMechanisms 173
8.2 PhotoelectricEffect 174
8.3 Energy–MomentumRequirementsforPhotonAbsorptionbyan
Electron 176
8.4 ComptonEffect 177
8.5 PairProduction 185
8.6 PhotonuclearReactions 186
8.7 AttenuationCoefficients 187
8.8 Energy-TransferandEnergy-AbsorptionCoefficients 192
8.9 CalculationofEnergyAbsorptionandEnergyTransfer 197
8.10 SuggestedReading 201
8.11 Problems 201
8.12 Answers 207
9 Neutrons,Fission,andCriticality 209
9.1 Introduction 209
9.2 NeutronSources 209
X Contents
9.3 ClassificationofNeutrons 214
9.4 InteractionswithMatter 215
9.5 ElasticScattering 216
9.6 Neutron–ProtonScatteringEnergy-LossSpectrum 219
9.7 Reactions 223
9.8 EnergeticsofThresholdReactions 226
9.9 NeutronActivation 228
9.10 Fission 230
9.11 Criticality 232
9.12 SuggestedReading 235
9.13 Problems 235
9.14 Answers 239
10 MethodsofRadiationDetection 241
10.1 IonizationinGases 241
IonizationCurrent 241
WValues 243
IonizationPulses 245
Gas-FilledDetectors 247
10.2 IonizationinSemiconductors 252
BandTheoryofSolids 252
Semiconductors 255
SemiconductorJunctions 259
RadiationMeasuringDevices 262
10.3 Scintillation 266
General 266
OrganicScintillators 267
InorganicScintillators 268
10.4 PhotographicFilm 275
10.5 Thermoluminescence 279
10.6 OtherMethods 281
ParticleTrackRegistration 281
OpticallyStimulatedLuminescence 282
DirectIonStorage(DIS) 283
Radiophotoluminescence 285
ChemicalDosimeters 285
Calorimetry 286
CerenkovDetectors 286
10.7 NeutronDetection 287
SlowNeutrons 287
IntermediateandFastNeutrons 290
10.8 SuggestedReading 296
10.9 Problems 296
10.10 Answers 301
Contents XI
11 Statistics 303
11.1 TheStatisticalWorldofAtomsandRadiation 303
11.2 RadioactiveDisintegration—ExponentialDecay 303
11.3 RadioactiveDisintegration—aBernoulliProcess 304
11.4 TheBinomialDistribution 307
11.5 ThePoissonDistribution 311
11.6 TheNormalDistribution 315
11.7 ErrorandErrorPropagation 321
11.8 CountingRadioactiveSamples 322
GrossCountRates 322
NetCountRates 324
OptimumCountingTimes 325
CountingShort-LivedSamples 326
11.9 MinimumSignificantMeasuredActivity—Type-IErrors 327
11.10 MinimumDetectableTrueActivity—Type-IIErrors 331
11.11 CriteriaforRadiobioassay,HPSNl3.30-1996 335
11.12 InstrumentResponse 337
EnergyResolution 337
DeadTime 339
11.13 MonteCarloSimulationofRadiationTransport 342
11.14 SuggestedReading 348
11.15 Problems 349
11.16 Answers 359
12 RadiationDosimetry 361
12.1 Introduction 361
12.2 QuantitiesandUnits 362
Exposure 362
AbsorbedDose 362
DoseEquivalent 363
12.3 MeasurementofExposure 365
Free-AirIonizationChamber 365
TheAir-WallChamber 367
12.4 MeasurementofAbsorbedDose 368
12.5 MeasurementofX-andGamma-RayDose 370
12.6 NeutronDosimetry 371
12.7 DoseMeasurementsforCharged-ParticleBeams 376
12.8 DeterminationofLET 377
12.9 DoseCalculations 379
AlphaandLow-EnergyBetaEmittersDistributedinTissue 379
Charged-ParticleBeams 380
PointSourceofGammaRays 381
Neutrons 383
12.10 OtherDosimetricConceptsandQuantities 387
XII Contents
Kerma 387
Microdosimetry 387
SpecificEnergy 388
LinealEnergy 388
12.11 SuggestedReading 389
12.12 Problems 390
12.13 Answers 398
13 ChemicalandBiologicalEffectsofRadiation 399
13.1 TimeFrameforRadiationEffects 399
13.2 PhysicalandPrechemicalChancesinIrradiatedWater 399
13.3 ChemicalStage 401
13.4 ExamplesofCalculatedCharged-ParticleTracksinWater 402
13.5 ChemicalYieldsinWater 404
13.6 BiologicalEffects 408
13.7 SourcesofHumanData 411
TheLifeSpanStudy 411
MedicalRadiation 413
Radium-DialPainters 415
UraniumMiners 416
Accidents 418
13.8 TheAcuteRadiationSyndrome 419
13.9 DelayedSomaticEffects 421
Cancer 421
LifeShortening 423
Cataracts 423
13.10 IrradiationofMammalianEmbryoandFetus 424
13.11 GeneticEffects 424
13.12 RadiationBiology 429
13.13 Dose–ResponseRelationships 430
13.14 FactorsAffectingDoseResponse 435
RelativeBiologicalEffectiveness 435
DoseRate 438
OxygenEnhancementRatio 439
ChemicalModifiers 439
DoseFractionationandRadiotherapy 440
13.15 SuggestedReading 441
13.16 Problems 442
13.17 Answers 447
14 Radiation-ProtectionCriteriaandExposureLimits 449
14.1 ObjectiveofRadiationProtection 449
14.2 ElementsofRadiation-ProtectionPrograms 449
Contents XIII
14.3 TheNCRPandICRP 451
14.4 NCRP/ICRPDosimetricQuantities 452
EquivalentDose 452
EffectiveDose 453
CommittedEquivalentDose 455
CommittedEffectiveDose 455
CollectiveQuantities 455
LimitsonIntake 456
14.5 RiskEstimatesforRadiationProtection 457
14.6 CurrentExposureLimitsoftheNCRPandICRP 458
OccupationalLimits 458
NonoccupationalLimits 460
NegligibleIndividualDose 460
ExposureofIndividualsUnder18YearsofAge 461
14.7 OccupationalLimitsintheDose-EquivalentSystem 463
14.8 The“2007ICRPRecommendations” 465
14.9 ICRUOperationalQuantities 466
14.10 ProbabilityofCausation 468
14.11 SuggestedReading 469
14.12 Problems 470
14.13 Answers 473
15 ExternalRadiationProtection 475
15.1 Distance,Time,andShielding 475
15.2 Gamma-RayShielding 476
15.3 ShieldinginX-RayInstallations 482
DesignofPrimaryProtectiveBarrier 485
DesignofSecondaryProtectiveBarrier 491
NCRPReportNo.147 494
15.4 ProtectionfromBetaRadiation 495
15.5 NeutronShielding 497
15.6 SuggestedReading 500
15.7 Problems 501
15.8 Answers 509
16 InternalDosimetryandRadiationProtection 511
16.1 Objectives 511
16.2 ICRPPublication89 512
16.3 Methodology 515
16.4 ICRP-30DosimetricModelfortheRespiratorySystem 517
16.5 ICRP-66HumanRespiratoryTractModel 520
16.6 ICRP-30DosimetricModelfortheGastrointestinalTract 523
16.7 OrganActivitiesasFunctionsofTime 524