Atoms and atomic arrangements

673 Pages·2012·6.06 MB·English

Physical Metallurgy and Advanced
Materials
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Physical Metallurgy and
Advanced Materials
Seventh edition
R. E. Smallman,
CBE,DSc,FRS,FREng,FIMMM
A. H. W. Ngan,
PhD,FIMMM,CSci,CEng
AMSTERDAM•BOSTON•HEIDELBERG•LONDON•NEWYORK•OXFORD
PARIS•SANDIEGO•SANFRANCISCO•SINGAPORE•SYDNEY•TOKYO
Butterworth-HeinemannisanimprintofElsevier
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Contents
Preface xiii
Abouttheauthors xv
Acknowledgments xvi
Illustrationcredits xvii
Chapter1 Atomsandatomicarrangements 1
1.1 Therealmofmaterialsscience 1
1.2 Thefreeatom 1
1.2.1 Thefourelectronquantumnumbers 1
1.2.2 Nomenclaturefortheelectronicstates 2
1.3 ThePeriodicTable 5
1.4 Interatomicbondinginmaterials 9
1.5 Bondingandenergylevels 13
1.6 Crystallatticesandstructures 15
1.7 Crystaldirectionsandplanes 16
1.8 Stereographicprojection 20
1.9 Selectedcrystalstructures 24
1.9.1 Puremetals 24
1.9.2 Diamondandgraphite 29
1.9.3 Coordinationinioniccrystals 30
1.9.4 AB-typecompounds 33
Chapter2 Phaseequilibriaandstructure 37
2.1 Crystallizationfromthemelt 37
2.1.1 Freezingofapuremetal 37
2.1.2 Plane-frontanddendriticsolidificationatacooledsurface 39
2.1.3 Formsofcaststructure 40
2.1.4 Gasporosityandsegregation 42
2.1.5 Directionalsolidification 43
2.1.6 Productionofmetallicsinglecrystalsforresearch 44
2.2 Principlesandapplicationsofphasediagrams 45
2.2.1 Theconceptofaphase 45
2.2.2 ThePhaseRule 46
2.2.3 Stabilityofphases 47
2.2.4 Two-phaseequilibria 51
2.2.5 Three-phaseequilibriaandreactions 58
2.2.6 Intermediatephases 62
2.2.7 Limitationsofphasediagrams 63
2.2.8 Somekeyphasediagrams 64
2.2.9 Ternaryphasediagrams 67
2.3 Principlesofalloytheory 74
2.3.1 Primarysubstitutionalsolidsolutions 74
2.3.2 Interstitialsolidsolutions 80
v
vi Contents
2.3.3 Typesofintermediatephases 81
2.3.4 Order–disorderphenomena 85
2.4 Themechanismofphasechanges 86
2.4.1 Kineticconsiderations 86
2.4.2 Homogeneousnucleation 88
2.4.3 Heterogeneousnucleation 90
2.4.4 Nucleationinsolids 91
Chapter3 Crystaldefects 95
3.1 Typesofimperfection 95
3.2 Pointdefects 96
3.2.1 Pointdefectsinmetals 96
3.2.2 Pointdefectsinnon-metalliccrystals 99
3.2.3 Irradiationofsolids 101
3.2.4 Pointdefectconcentrationandannealing 104
3.3 Linedefects 107
3.3.1 Conceptofadislocation 107
3.3.2 Edgeandscrewdislocations 108
3.3.3 TheBurgersvector 108
3.3.4 Mechanismsofslipandclimb 109
3.3.5 Strainenergyassociatedwithdislocations 113
3.3.6 Dislocationsinionicstructures 117
3.4 Planardefects 117
3.4.1 Grainboundaries 117
3.4.2 Twinboundaries 120
3.4.3 Extendeddislocationsandstackingfaultsinclose-packedcrystals 121
3.5 Volumedefects 128
3.5.1 Voidformationandannealing 128
3.5.2 Irradiationandvoiding 128
3.5.3 Voidingandfracture 129
3.6 Defectbehaviorincommoncrystalstructures 129
3.6.1 DislocationvectordiagramsandtheThompsontetrahedron 129
3.6.2 Dislocationsandstackingfaultsinfccstructures 130
3.6.3 Dislocationsandstackingfaultsincphstructures 138
3.6.4 Dislocationsandstackingfaultsinbccstructures 142
3.6.5 Dislocationsandstackingfaultsinorderedstructures 144
3.7 Stabilityofdefects 147
3.7.1 Dislocationloops 147
3.7.2 Voids 150
3.7.3 Nuclearirradiationeffects 152
Chapter4 Characterizationandanalysis 161
4.1 Toolsofcharacterization 161
4.2 Lightmicroscopy 162
4.2.1 Basicprinciples 162
4.2.2 Selectedmicroscopicaltechniques 165
4.3 X-raydiffractionanalysis 169
4.3.1 ProductionandabsorptionofX-rays 169
4.3.2 DiffractionofX-raysbycrystals 171
4.3.3 X-raydiffractionmethods 172
4.3.4 Typicalinterpretativeproceduresfordiffractionpatterns 178
Contents vii
4.4 Analyticalelectronmicroscopy 184
4.4.1 Interactionofanelectronbeamwithasolid 184
4.4.2 Thetransmissionelectronmicroscope(TEM) 185
4.4.3 Thescanningelectronmicroscope 187
4.4.4 TheoreticalaspectsofTEM 190
4.4.5 Chemicalmicroanalysis 196
4.4.6 Electronenergy-lossspectroscopy(EELS) 202
4.4.7 Augerelectronspectroscopy(AES) 203
4.5 Observationofdefects 204
4.5.1 Etchpitting 204
4.5.2 Dislocationdecoration 205
4.5.3 DislocationstraincontrastinTEM 205
4.5.4 Contrastfromcrystals 207
4.5.5 Imagingofdislocations 208
4.5.6 Imagingofstackingfaults 209
4.5.7 Applicationofdynamicaltheory 210
4.5.8 Weak-beammicroscopy 212
4.6 Scanningprobemicroscopy 214
4.6.1 Scanningtunnelingmicroscopy(STM) 215
4.6.2 Atomicforcemicroscopy(AFM) 219
4.6.3 ApplicationsofSPM 221
4.6.4 Nanoindentation 222
4.7 Specializedbombardmenttechniques 230
4.7.1 Neutrondiffraction 230
4.7.2 Synchrotronradiationstudies 232
4.7.3 Secondaryionmassspectrometry(SIMS) 233
4.8 Thermalanalysis 234
4.8.1 Generalcapabilitiesofthermalanalysis 234
4.8.2 Thermogravimetricanalysis 234
4.8.3 Differentialthermalanalysis 235
4.8.4 Differentialscanningcalorimetry 236
Chapter5 Physicalproperties 239
5.1 Introduction 239
5.2 Density 239
5.3 Thermalproperties 240
5.3.1 Thermalexpansion 240
5.3.2 Specificheatcapacity 242
5.3.3 Thespecificheatcurveandtransformations 243
5.3.4 Freeenergyoftransformation 244
5.4 Diffusion 245
5.4.1 Diffusionlaws 245
5.4.2 Mechanismsofdiffusion 249
5.4.3 Factorsaffectingdiffusion 250
5.5 Anelasticityandinternalfriction 251
5.6 Orderinginalloys 254
5.6.1 Long-rangeandshort-rangeorder 254
5.6.2 Detectionofordering 255
5.6.3 Influenceoforderingonproperties 259
5.7 Electricalproperties 260
5.7.1 Electricalconductivity 260
viii Contents
5.7.2 Semiconductors 264
5.7.3 Halleffect 267
5.7.4 Superconductivity 269
5.7.5 Oxidesuperconductors 272
5.8 Magneticproperties 273
5.8.1 Magneticsusceptibility 273
5.8.2 Diamagnetismandparamagnetism 274
5.8.3 Ferromagnetism 275
5.8.4 Magneticalloys 277
5.8.5 Anti-ferromagnetismandferrimagnetism 281
5.9 Dielectricmaterials 282
5.9.1 Polarization 282
5.9.2 Capacitorsandinsulators 283
5.9.3 Piezoelectricmaterials 283
5.9.4 Pyroelectricandferroelectricmaterials 283
5.10 Opticalproperties 284
5.10.1 Reflection,absorptionandtransmissioneffects 284
5.10.2 Opticalfibers 285
5.10.3 Lasers 286
5.10.4 Ceramic‘windows’ 287
5.10.5 Electro-opticceramics 287
Chapter6 MechanicalpropertiesI 289
6.1 Mechanicaltestingprocedures 289
6.1.1 Introduction 289
6.1.2 Thetensiletest 289
6.1.3 Indentationhardnesstesting 292
6.1.4 Impacttesting 292
6.1.5 Creeptesting 292
6.1.6 Fatiguetesting 293
6.2 Elasticdeformation 294
6.3 Plasticdeformation 297
6.3.1 Slipandtwinning 297
6.3.2 Resolvedshearstress 298
6.3.3 Relationofsliptocrystalstructure 300
6.3.4 Lawofcriticalresolvedshearstress 300
6.3.5 Multipleslip 301
6.3.6 Relationbetweenworkhardeningandslip 303
6.4 Dislocationbehaviorduringplasticdeformation 303
6.4.1 Dislocationmobility 303
6.4.2 Variationofyieldstresswithtemperatureandstrainrate 304
6.4.3 Dislocationsourceoperation 306
6.4.4 Discontinuousyielding 310
6.4.5 Yieldpointsandcrystalstructure 312
6.4.6 Discontinuousyieldinginorderedalloys 314
6.4.7 Solute–dislocationinteraction 315
6.4.8 Dislocationlockingandtemperature 318
6.4.9 Inhomogeneityinteraction 320
6.4.10 Kineticsofstrainageing 320
6.4.11 Influenceofgrainboundariesonplasticity 321
6.4.12 Superplasticity 324
Contents ix
6.5 Mechanicaltwinning 326
6.5.1 Crystallographyoftwinning 326
6.5.2 Nucleationandgrowthoftwins 327
6.5.3 Effectofimpuritiesontwinning 329
6.5.4 Effectofprestrainontwinning 329
6.5.5 Dislocationmechanismoftwinning 329
6.5.6 Twinningandfracture 330
6.6 Strengtheningandhardeningmechanisms 330
6.6.1 Pointdefecthardening 330
6.6.2 Workhardening 332
6.6.3 Developmentofpreferredorientation 341
6.7 Macroscopicplasticity 345
6.7.1 TrescaandvonMisescriteria 345
6.7.2 Effectivestressandstrain 347
6.8 Annealing 348
6.8.1 Generaleffectsofannealing 348
6.8.2 Recovery 349
6.8.3 Recrystallization 351
6.8.4 Graingrowth 355
6.8.5 Annealingtwins 358
6.8.6 Recrystallizationtextures 360
6.9 Metalliccreep 361
6.9.1 Transientandsteady-statecreep 361
6.9.2 Grainboundarycontributiontocreep 365
6.9.3 Tertiarycreepandfracture 367
6.9.4 Creep-resistantalloydesign 368
6.10 Deformationmechanismmaps 370
6.11 Metallicfatigue 371
6.11.1 Natureoffatiguefailure 371
6.11.2 Engineeringaspectsoffatigue 372
6.11.3 Structuralchangesaccompanyingfatigue 375
6.11.4 Crackformationandfatiguefailure 378
6.11.5 Fatigueatelevatedtemperatures 381
Chapter7 MechanicalpropertiesII–Strengtheningandtoughening 385
7.1 Introduction 385
7.2 Strengtheningofnon-ferrousalloysbyheattreatment 385
7.2.1 PrecipitationhardeningofAl–Cualloys 385
7.2.2 PrecipitationhardeningofAl–Agalloys 391
7.2.3 Mechanismsofprecipitationhardening 394
7.2.4 Vacanciesandprecipitation 399
7.2.5 Duplexageing 403
7.2.6 Particlecoarsening 404
7.2.7 Spinodaldecomposition 407
7.3 Strengtheningofsteelsbyheattreatment 409
7.3.1 Time–temperature–transformationdiagrams 409
7.3.2 Austenite–pearlitetransformation 411
7.3.3 Austenite–martensitetransformation 414
7.3.4 Austenite–bainitetransformation 420
7.3.5 Temperingofmartensite 420
7.3.6 Thermomechanicaltreatments 422