Atmospheric Radar: Application and Science of MST Radars in the Earth's Mesosphere, Stratosphere, Troposphere, and Weakly Ionized Regions

853 Pages·2016·21.423 MB·English

by  Wayne K. Hocking, Jürgen Röttger, Robert D. Palmer

Cambridge University Press
978-1-107-14746-1 — Atmospheric Radar
Wayne K. Hocking , Jürgen Röttger , Robert D. Palmer , Toru Sato , Phillip B. Chilson
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AtmosphericRadar
Richly illustrated, and including both an extensive bibliography and index, this indispensable
guidebringstogetherthetheory,design,andapplicationofatmosphericradar.Itexplainsthebasic
thermodynamicsanddynamicsofthetroposphere,stratosphere,andmesosphere,anddiscusses
thephysicalandengineeringprinciplesbehindoneofthekeytoolsusedtostudytheseregions
– MST radars. Key topics covered include antennas, signal propagation, and signal processing
techniques.Awiderangeofpracticalapplicationsisdiscussed,includingtheuseofatmospheric
radartostudywindprofiles,tropospherictemperature,andgravitywaves.Adetailedoverviewof
radardesignsprovidesawealthofknowledgeandtools,providingreaderswithastrongbasisfor
buildingtheirowninstruments.Thisisanessentialresourceforgraduatestudentsandresearchers
workingintheareasofradarengineering,remotesensing,meteorology,andatmosphericphysics,
aswellasforpractitionersintheradarindustry.
WayneK.Hocking is a Professor of Physics at the University of Western Ontario and a Fellow
oftheRoyalSocietyofCanadaandoftheAustralianInstituteofPhysics.Hehasbuiltover40
radarsworld-wideandeditedmultiplespecialissuesofjournals.HeistherecipientoftheMedal
for Outstanding Achievement in Industrial/Applied Physics from the Canadian Association of
PhysicistsandthePawseyMedalfromtheAustralianAcademyofScience.Hehasalsoreceived
acitationfromNASAforhisworkontheSpaceShuttlere-entryenvironment.
JürgenRöttgerisaFellowoftheRoyalAstronomicalSocietyandholdstheMinervaMedalofthe
MaxPlanckSociety.HehasalsoheldthepositionofChairProfessoratNationalCentralUniver-
sity.Inthe1970shewasaleadingdeveloperoftheSOUSYradar.In1985heheadedatmospheric
sciencesattheAreciboObservatory,andfrom1986–1997wastheDirectorofEISCAT,wherehe
wasawardedtheEISCATBeynonMedalforhisroleinthedevelopmentoftheEISCATSvalbard
radar.HealsoledthedesignoftheChung-LiMSTradarinTaiwan.
Robert D. Palmer is the Executive Director of the Advanced Radar Research Center and the
Craighead Chair in the School of Meteorology at the University of Oklahoma. He also serves
astheUniversity’sAssociateVicePresidentforResearch.Hehaspublishedwidelyinthearea
of radar sensing of the atmosphere, with an emphasis on imaging problems, waveform design,
clutter mitigation, and the application of array/signal processing techniques to observations of
boththeclear-airenvironmentandsevereweather.ProfessorPalmerisaFellowoftheAmerican
MeteorologicalSociety.
ToruSatoisaProfessorintheGraduateSchoolofInformaticsatKyotoUniversity.Hehasbeen
engaged in data analysis of Jicamarca and Arecibo radars, and has contributed to the design
andoperationofJapaneseMST/ISradars,notablytheMUradar,EquatorialAtmosphereradar,
and PANSY radar. He has published more than 160 journal papers, and in 2015 received the
Commendation for Contributors to Promotion of an Oceanic State from the Prime Minister of
Japan.
Phillip B. Chilson is a Professor in the School of Meteorology at the University of Oklahoma
and a member of the University’s Advanced Radar Research Center. He has been involved in
atmosphericradarresearchanddevelopmentforover25yearsandhashelpedtodevelopmany
advanced radar signal processing tools. Professor Chilson has previously held positions at the
MaxPlanckInstituteforAstronomy,theSwedishInstituteofSpacePhysics,andtheUniversity
ofColoradoinBoulder.
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Cambridge University Press
978-1-107-14746-1 — Atmospheric Radar
Wayne K. Hocking , Jürgen Röttger , Robert D. Palmer , Toru Sato , Phillip B. Chilson
Frontmatter
More Information
Atmospheric Radar
Application and Science of MST Radars in the
Earth’s Mesosphere, Stratosphere, Troposphere,
and Weakly Ionized Regions
WAYNE K. HOCKING
UniversityofWesternOntario
JÜRGEN RÖTTGER
MaxPlanckInstituteforSolarSystemResearch
ROBERT D. PALMER
UniversityofOklahoma
TORU SATO
KyotoUniversity
PHILLIP B. CHILSON
UniversityofOklahoma
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Cambridge University Press
978-1-107-14746-1 — Atmospheric Radar
Wayne K. Hocking , Jürgen Röttger , Robert D. Palmer , Toru Sato , Phillip B. Chilson
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Names:Hocking,W.K.,author. | Röttger,J.(Jürgen),author. | Palmer,
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PhillipB.,1963-author.
Title:Atmosphericradar:applicationandscienceofMST
radarsintheEarth’smesosphere,stratosphere,troposphere,andweakly
ionizedregions/WayneK.Hocking(UniversityofWesternOntario),
JürgenRöttger(MaxPlanckInstituteforSolarSystemResearch),
RobertD.Palmer(UniversityofOklahoma),ToruSato(KyotoUniversity),
PhillipB.Chilson(UniversityofOklahoma).
Description:Cambridge,UnitedKingdom;NewYork,NY:CambridgeUniversity
Press,2016. | Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex.
Identifiers:LCCN2016013389 | ISBN9781107147461 | ISBN1107147468
Subjects:LCSH:Atmosphere–Measurement. | Radarmeteorology. | Atmospheric
physics.
Classification:LCCQC973.5.H632016 | DDC621.3848–dc23
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ISBN978-1-107-14746-1Hardback
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Cambridge University Press
978-1-107-14746-1 — Atmospheric Radar
Wayne K. Hocking , Jürgen Röttger , Robert D. Palmer , Toru Sato , Phillip B. Chilson
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Contents
Preface pagexiii
Acknowledgments xvi
1 Anoverviewoftheatmosphere 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Theoriginsofradar 2
1.3 Theatmosphere–anoverview 6
1.3.1 TheEarth’sneutralatmosphereandionosphere 6
1.3.2 Causesofthetemperatureanddensitystructures 13
1.3.3 Radiativetransferinthetroposphereandgreenhousewarming 16
1.3.4 Variabilityandatmosphericcirculation 20
1.3.5 Atmospheric circulation in the upper stratosphere and
mesosphere 29
1.3.6 Synopticandmesoscaleflows 34
1.4 Someimportantthermodynamicsandstatics 35
1.4.1 Introduction 35
1.4.2 Pressureasafunctionofheight 36
1.4.3 Adiabaticexpansion 37
1.4.4 Adiabaticlapserate 38
1.4.5 Brunt–Väisäläfrequency 40
1.4.6 Potentialtemperature 44
1.4.7 AtmosphericstabilityandtheRichardsonnumber 45
2 Thehistoryofradarinatmosphericinvestigations 47
2.1 Introduction 47
2.2 Meteorologicalradar 48
2.3 Dopplermethodsinradarmeteorology 50
2.4 IonospherichistorypertainingtoMSTradar 55
2.5 D-regionstudieswithMFandHFradar 58
2.6 Meteorphysicswithradar 70
2.7 Incoherentscatterradars 73
2.7.1 Coherentechoesseenwithincoherentscatterradars 75
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978-1-107-14746-1 — Atmospheric Radar
Wayne K. Hocking , Jürgen Röttger , Robert D. Palmer , Toru Sato , Phillip B. Chilson
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vi Contents
2.8 MSTradartechniquesatVHFandsomeatmosphericsciencehighlights 76
2.9 Newer-generationradars 86
2.10 Scatteringandpartialreflection 88
2.10.1 SpecularandFresnelreflectors 88
2.10.2 Scatteringbyturbulence 93
2.10.3 Amplitudedistributions 94
2.11 VHF-MSTradarmethodsformeasuringthehorizontalwindvelocity 95
2.12 Measuringmomentumfluxandturbulence 98
2.13 RadarmeteorologyandnetworksusingMSTradars 99
2.14 Strangescatterersinthepolarupperatmosphere 100
2.15 Imaging,improvingspatialresolution,andapplicationofinterferometry 102
2.15.1 Introduction 102
2.15.2 Resolutionimprovement 103
2.15.3 Interferometry 103
2.15.4 Imaging 105
2.15.5 Frequencydomaininterferometry 106
2.15.6 Imaging,SDI,FDI,andsimilartechniques 106
2.15.7 TherelationbetweenIDIandFCA-typemethods,andthe
validityofpointscatterers 113
2.16 TemperaturemeasurementsandRASS 115
2.17 PrecipitationmeasurementswithMSTradar 117
2.18 Additionalapplications 118
3 Refractiveindexoftheatmosphereandionosphere 120
3.1 Introduction 120
3.2 Waverepresentation 121
3.3 Electromagneticwavesinadielectric 123
3.3.1 Useofcomplexnumbers 125
3.4 Refractiveindexofanelectrongas 126
3.4.1 RelevanceofrefractiveindexinMSTstudies 129
3.4.2 Howcanthephasespeedbegreaterthanc? 130
3.5 Radiowaverefraction 138
3.5.1 Refractionintheionosphere 139
3.6 Verticalincidence 141
3.6.1 Evanescence 142
3.6.2 Inclusionofcollisionratesintheexpressionforrefractiveindex 143
3.6.3 Inclusionofthemagneticfield 146
3.6.4 Inclusionofboththemagneticfieldandcollisionaleffects 156
3.6.5 Moresophisticatedequationsforrefractiveindex 157
3.7 Electronbackscattercross-section 159
3.7.1 Cross-sections 159
3.7.2 Scatteringfromafreeelectrongas 159
3.8 Multipleelectrons 165
3.8.1 Aregulargrid 165
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978-1-107-14746-1 — Atmospheric Radar
Wayne K. Hocking , Jürgen Röttger , Robert D. Palmer , Toru Sato , Phillip B. Chilson
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Contents vii
3.8.2 Braggscales 166
3.8.3 Randompositions 168
3.8.4 Randomelectronposition 169
3.8.5 Rayleighdistributions 169
3.9 Backscattercross-sectionsandreflectivitiesforaradar 171
3.9.1 Introductionofthespectrum 171
3.9.2 Thespectrumofrefractiveindexvariations 176
3.10 Impactofelectronmotionsandplasmawavesinradiowavescattering 199
3.10.1 Furthertheorypertainingtoscattering 205
3.11 Refractiveindexandscatteringintheneutralatmosphere 205
3.11.1 Expressionsfortherefractiveindexintheneutralair 206
3.12 Diffraction,antennafieldpatterns,andgain 216
4 Fundamentalconceptsofradarremotesensing 217
4.1 Introduction 217
4.2 TheradartargetsinMSTstudies 217
4.3 Asimpleradar 219
4.4 Radarpolardiagrams 222
4.5 Monostaticcontinuous-wave“radar” 224
4.6 Pulsedradar 230
4.6.1 Backscatterasaconvolution 234
4.6.2 Superheterodynesystems 236
4.6.3 Transmit-receiveswitches 239
4.6.4 Multi-staticcontinuous-waveradar 240
4.7 Combiningthepulseequationsandthepolardiagrams 241
4.8 Optimizingthesignal 243
4.8.1 Matchedfilter 243
4.8.2 Filtersandresolution 245
4.8.3 Pulsecompression 247
4.9 Dopplerradialvelocityandcoherentintegration 253
4.9.1 Radialvelocity 253
4.9.2 Coherentintegration 257
4.9.3 Analternativetocoherentintegration 259
4.10 Rangeandvelocityambiguities:ambiguityfunction 264
4.10.1 Deliberaterangealiasing 266
4.11 Radarcalibration 267
5 Configurationofatmosphericradars–antennas,beampatterns,
electronics,andcalibration 268
5.1 Introduction 268
5.1.1 Monostaticsystems:pulsedandFM-CW 268
5.1.2 Multistaticsystems 270
5.2 Radarantennas 274
5.2.1 Basictheory 274
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978-1-107-14746-1 — Atmospheric Radar
Wayne K. Hocking , Jürgen Röttger , Robert D. Palmer , Toru Sato , Phillip B. Chilson
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viii Contents
5.2.2 Relationbetweengain,effectivearea,andbeam-width 276
5.2.3 Radiationpatternsforsimpleantennas 285
5.2.4 Reflectorantenna 286
5.2.5 Arrayantenna 288
5.2.6 Elementantennaforarray 294
5.2.7 Antennaimpedanceandmatching 295
5.2.8 Effectofrandomerrorsinanarrayantenna 298
5.2.9 Digitalbeamforming(DBF)antennas 299
5.2.10 Thefeedsystem 300
5.2.11 Beamsteeringandphaseshifting 301
5.2.12 Adaptiveclutterrejection 301
5.3 Transmitterandreceiversystems 305
5.3.1 Systemconfiguration 305
5.3.2 Transmitter 306
5.3.3 Thereceiver 308
5.3.4 TRswitch 309
5.4 Radarsignalacquisitionsystem 312
5.4.1 Digitalreceiversystems 313
5.4.2 Fullydigitalsystems 314
5.4.3 Pulse-coding,coherentintegration,andsoftwareissues 314
5.5 Relatingbackscattercross-sectionsandreflectivitiestoreceivedpower 314
5.5.1 Anexample:naivedeterminationofelectrondensity 315
5.5.2 Determinationofturbulenceparameters 318
5.6 Calibration 320
5.6.1 Rangecalibration 321
5.6.2 Calibrationofthepolardiagram 322
5.6.3 Powercalibration 324
6 Examplesofspecificatmosphericradarsystems 337
6.1 Introduction 337
6.2 TheSOUSYradar 338
6.2.1 Technicaldetails 341
6.2.2 SummaryoftheSOUSYradar 350
6.3 TheMUradar 350
6.3.1 Introduction 350
6.3.2 Computers 352
6.3.3 Theantennaarray 353
6.3.4 Thetransmitter-receiversystem 356
6.3.5 Antennafeedmechanism 358
6.3.6 SummaryoftheMUradar 359
6.4 TheCLOVARradar 359
6.4.1 Introduction 359
6.4.2 Theantennaarray 360
6.4.3 Thecontrollercomputer 366
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978-1-107-14746-1 — Atmospheric Radar
Wayne K. Hocking , Jürgen Röttger , Robert D. Palmer , Toru Sato , Phillip B. Chilson
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Contents ix
6.4.4 Beam-pointing 367
6.4.5 Thetransmitter,transmit-receiveswitch,andreceiver 370
6.4.6 Systemtestsandusefulness 370
6.5 Morerecentradars 372
6.5.1 ThePANSYradar 372
6.5.2 TheMAARSYradar 379
7 Derivationofatmosphericparameters 381
7.1 Introduction 381
7.2 Windvectordetermination 382
7.2.1 Dopplermeasurements 382
7.2.2 Spacedantennamethods:FCAandinterferometertechniques 392
7.2.3 Briefcommentsonthevariouswind-measurementtechniques 392
7.3 Spectralwidthestimates 393
7.3.1 Theoreticaldeterminationsofthebeam-broadenedspectral
width 398
7.3.2 “Negative”energydissipationrates 401
7.3.3 Extractionoftheturbulentkineticenergydissipationrate 404
7.4 Powermeasurements 415
7.4.1 Modelingthereflectionandscatteringprocesses 416
7.4.2 Convertingreceivedpowerstobackscattercross-sections 419
7.4.3 Determinationofturbulenceintensitiesfrommeasurements
ofreceivedpower 422
7.5 Aspectsensitivityofthescatterers 424
7.5.1 Experimentaltechniquestodeterminethenatureofthescatterers427
7.6 Someinterestingtroposphericparameters 436
7.6.1 VHFradaranisotropy,convection,andprecipitation 437
7.6.2 Tropopauseheight 437
7.7 Lesseasilydeterminedtargetparameters 438
8 DigitalprocessingofDopplerradarsignals 441
8.1 Analog-to-digitalconversion 443
8.2 Time-domainprocessing 445
8.3 BriefreviewofFourieranalysis 447
8.3.1 Continuous-timeFouriertransform 448
8.3.2 Discrete-timeFouriertransform 452
8.3.3 DiscreteFouriertransform(fastFouriertransform) 455
8.4 Digitalfilteringconcepts 459
8.4.1 z-transformandfrequencyresponse 459
8.4.2 Digitalfilterdesign 461
8.5 Reviewofrandomprocesses 465
8.6 Estimationofthepowerspectraldensity 469
8.6.1 Periodogramandcorrelogram 470
8.6.2 Blackman–Tukeymethod 476
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978-1-107-14746-1 — Atmospheric Radar
Wayne K. Hocking , Jürgen Röttger , Robert D. Palmer , Toru Sato , Phillip B. Chilson
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x Contents
8.6.3 Averagedperiodogrammethod–Bartlettmethod 478
8.6.4 Spectralconvolutionsandrunningmeans 481
8.6.5 Caponmethod 482
8.7 TheatmosphericDopplerspectrum 491
8.8 Estimationofspectralmoments 495
8.8.1 Timedomainestimators(autocovariancemethod) 497
8.8.2 Frequencydomainestimators 499
9 Multiple-receiverandmultiple-frequencyradartechniques 504
9.1 Introduction 504
9.2 Mathematicalframeworktodescribetheradarsignal 509
9.2.1 Scatterfromasinglescatterer 509
9.2.2 Scatterfromdistributedormultiplescatterers 512
9.2.3 Covariance/correlationfunctionsandthebrightnessfunction 513
9.3 Spacedantennamethods 519
9.3.1 Fundamentalconcepts 519
9.3.2 Fullcorrelationanalysis(FCA) 523
9.4 Interferometry 530
9.4.1 Radarinterferometry(RI) 532
9.4.2 Frequencydomaininterferometry(FDI) 535
9.5 Imaging 537
9.5.1 Multiple-receiverimaging 538
9.5.2 Estimationoftheweightingvector 541
9.5.3 Multiple-frequencyimaging 543
10 Extendedandmiscellaneousapplicationsofatmosphericradars 549
10.1 Introduction 549
10.2 PMSEandPMWE 550
10.2.1 Geographicaldistribution 552
10.2.2 ReasonsforPMSE 554
10.2.3 Othermesosphericechoes 557
10.3 Meteorstudies 560
10.3.1 Introductionandradardesign 560
10.3.2 Windsandtemperatures 561
10.3.3 Momentumfluxes 563
10.3.4 Additionalmiscellaneousmeteor-relatedstudies 565
10.4 TropospherictemperaturemeasurementsandRASS 566
10.5 Waterinthetroposphereandstratosphere 567
10.5.1 PrecipitationmeasurementswithSTradar 567
10.5.2 MeasuringhumiditywithSTradar 567
10.6 Otherspecializedmeteorologicaltopics 569
10.7 Lightningdetectionwithwindprofilerradars 570
10.7.1 Themechanicsoflightning 570
10.7.2 VHFradarandradioobservationsoflightning 572
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978-1-107-14746-1 — Atmospheric Radar
Wayne K. Hocking , Jürgen Röttger , Robert D. Palmer , Toru Sato , Phillip B. Chilson
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Contents xi
10.7.3 Amplitudeandphasecharacteristicsofradarreturnsfrom
lightning 576
10.7.4 VHFradarinterferometerobservationsoflightning 578
10.8 Studiesabovethemesosphere–plasmaandionosphericprocesses 581
10.8.1 150kmechoes 583
10.8.2 Otherionosphericresearch 588
10.9 D-regionscatterandthedifferentialabsorptionexperiment 589
10.9.1 DAE(thedifferentialabsorptionexperiment) 589
10.9.2 Passiveradar 594
10.10 Astronomicalapplications 594
10.11 Finalcomments 595
11 Gravitywavesandturbulence 596
11.1 Introduction 596
11.2 Gravitywaves 598
11.2.1 Theimportanceofgravitywaves 598
11.2.2 Asimpledescriptionofthegenerationofgravitywaves 599
11.2.3 Thefluiddynamicalequationsofmotion 606
11.2.4 Theapproximationsoftheequationsofmotionforgravity
wavestudies 607
11.2.5 Saturationtheoryandthe“universalspectrum” 611
11.2.6 Measurementtechniquesforgravitywaves 617
11.2.7 Overviewofsomeimportantgravitywaveparameters 619
11.2.8 Seasonalandlatitudinalvariations 622
11.2.9 Refraction,turninglevels,andwaveducting 624
11.2.10 Sourcesofgravitywaves 627
11.2.11 Directionsofpropagation 629
11.2.12 Breakdown, convective adjustment (shedding), and
catastrophiccollapse 630
11.2.13 Momentumfluxes,dragforces,andenergyfluxes 632
11.2.14 Meanflowinteractions 636
11.2.15 Stokes’driftandwave-induceddiffusion 636
11.2.16 Localgravitywaveeffects 637
11.2.17 Gravitywaveparameterizationformeteorologicalmodels 638
11.3 Turbulenceintheupperatmosphere 639
11.3.1 Turbulencestructureabovetheboundarylayer 639
11.3.2 Thekeyscalesofturbulence 649
11.3.3 Theturbopause 652
11.3.4 Turbulencestructurefunctionsandspectra 653
11.3.5 Measurementtechniquesandresultsforturbulencestudies 659
11.3.6 Small-scalestructuresandanisotropicturbulence 668
11.3.7 Computer modeling of gravity wave breakdown and
turbulenceproduction 670
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