Astronautics: Summary and Prospects

600 Pages·2003·29.482 MB·English

by  Anatoly Ivanovich Kiselev, Alexander Alexeevich Medvedev, Valery Alexandrovich Menshikov (auth.)

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Anatoly Ivanovich Kiselev
Alexander Alexeevich Medvedev
Valery Alexandrovich Menshikov
Astronautics
Summary and Prospects
Springer-Verlag Wien GmbH
Anatoly Ivanovich Kiselev
Alexander Alexeevich Medvedev
Valery Alexandrovich Menshikov
Translated from Russia by Valery Sherbako", Nikolai Novichko", Alexander Nechaev
OriginaHy published as Cosmonautics on the Frontier of Millenniums. Summary and Prospects
© Mashinostroenie-Polyot, Moscow, 2001
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© 2003 Springer-Verlag Wien
Originally published by Springer-Verlag Wien in 2003
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With 245 partly coloured Figures
ISBN 978-3-7091-7218-6 ISBN 978-3-7091-0648-8 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-7091-0648-8
Preface to the English language edition
The monograph by A.I.Kiselev,
A.A.Medvedev, V.A.Menshikov, distinguished
organizers and noted experts in the development
and production of space rocketry, is a continua
tion ofthe constructive dialogue and cooperation
between Russia and the West in such an impor
tant and promising field of human activity as
astronautics. The authors have made an out
standing personal contributionto the internation
al effort in space research, in the development of
piloted flight programs and international space
stations.
The book has been published twice inRussiaand ispopularnot only with
experts in astronautics but with all those interested in Russian cosmonautics
and her rolein the world's space research efforts.
At the turn of millennium, the authors have gathered together a huge
amountoffactsand drawn conclusions concerning the creation and operation
of space equipment over more than half a century, and in doing, so indicate
how astronautics will conceivably develop in the 21st century.
Today's achievements in applied astronautics are utilized in many fieldsof
human activity.Satellitecommunication and satellite television are now com
mon placeasthe telephone became fiftyyears ago.Information from satellites
is not only used by heads of states but also for farming, forestry and fishing
purposes and ecological monitoring. Road, maritime and air traffic control
seems inconceivablenowadays without satellite systems.
Not only today's astronautics, but also its prospects must be clearlyunder
stood and thoroughly investigated.What will the future multi-function sys
tems look like? All these issues are considered here.The section devoted to
ecologicalproblems makes the book especially significant and highly topical.
It is probably the first time that Russia's space researchers have discussed the
subjectsoopenly.This, indisputably,givesjoyand inspireshope.Inspiringstill
more hope, however, is the constructive approach displayed by the authors.
Not confining themselves to a mere description of space activity's negative
impact on the environment, they describe in concrete terms the measures
being taken by some aerospace agencies to reduce this impact and propose
ways and means for further work in this area.
The book contains a largeamount offacts that canbe understood without
specialistknowledge and thatareaccompanied byamany photographs,charts
and diagrams. Foreign readers will find in it answers to many of their ques
tions, and the book will thus be interesting both to experts pursuing astronau
ticsprofessionally and to lay readers at large.
NASAadministrator
(1992-2001)
D.Goldin
Preface to the Russian edition
The monograph by A.I.Kiselev, A.A.
Medvedev and Y.A.Menshikov, Astronautics:
Summary and Prospects, aroused enthusiasm
bothamong experts and the publicat large. This
isdue to the felicitouschoiceofpresentationthat
combines a simple description of complex space
matters with scientificsubstantiation of the sub
jectmatterdescribed.The wealth ofcolorphotos
makes the book still more attractive, and it was
nominated foran award at the 14th International
MoscowBookFair, being singledout as the "best
publication of the book fair".
The book's popularity led to a second edition, substantially revised and
enlarged. Since the first edition did not sufficiently cover the issues of space
impact on ecology and the prospective development of space systems, the
authors revised the entire volume, including in it the chapter "Space activity
and ecology"and the section "Multi-function spacesystems".
Using the federal monitoring system, now in the phase of system engi
neering, as an example, the authors consider the basic principles of building
and the likelyprincipalfeatures of the future multi-role space systems capable
offulfilling a wide range ofmissions.
Nowadays, space activity increasingly criticized by dedicated ecologists.
This is not unfair. The development and utilization of space, like any other
humanactivity,isinvariablyaccompanied by suchan untoward effectasenvi
ronmental pollution. This criticism,however, isoften prejudiced and opinion
ated.The authors attempttolookinto the matterimpartiallyand withoutbias.
It is particularly important that the section "Spaceactivity and ecology" does
not merely state the facts involvedin the negative impact of space activity on
the environment, butalsosuppliesadetailed description asto howthis impact
can be cushioned in the near and in the more distant future.
The graphic material has been updated and enlarged with due regard for
readers' comments.
Finally, itshould benoted thatforeignreaders,too, willfind the book high
ly interesting.
General Director of the RussianAviationand SpaceAgency
Yu.N.Koptev
The contents
Introduction
Part1.Trendsinglobal space exploration 17
Globalastronautics, ageneral survey 19
1.1 Orbitalfacilities astheyare 26
1.1.1The maintrendsindevelopment oforbitalfacilities 30
1.1.2Communicationfacilities 32
1.1.3Civilusefacilities 37
1.1.4CommercialfacilitiesofERS 38
1.2Foreignlaunchfacilities 40
1.2.1Heavyliftlaunchers 47
Americanheavyliftlaunchers 47
HeavyliftlaunchersofEuropeanSpaceAgency 50
TheJapaneseheavyliftlaunchers 52
1.2.2Medium liftlaunchers 53
MediumliftlaunchersoftheUSA 53
MediumliftlaunchersofEuropeanSpaceAgency 65
Medium liftlaunchersofChina 67
Medium liftlaunchersofJapan 69
Medium liftlaunchersofIndia 70
1.2.3Smallliftlaunchvehicles 70
SmallliftlaunchvehiclesoftheUSA 70
Europe'ssmallliftlaunchers 79
Smallliftlaunchersofother countries 83
1.2.4Reusablespacetransportsystems 87
1.3Spaceports ofthe world 99
1.3.1Spaceportsandtestsitesofthe USA 100
1.3.2Spaceportsofother countries 104
1.4Spacecraftcontrol systemsabroad.The presentstate ofthe artand
the prospectforthe future 113
1.4.1Generaldescription offoreigncontrolsystems forspacecraft 113
SCcontrolsystems inUSA 114
SCcontrolsystemsofEuropeanSpaceAgency(ESA) 130
SCcontrolsystems ofFrance 132
SCcontrolsystems ofUK 133
SCcontrolsystems ofChina 134
SCcontrolsystemsofJapan 135
SCcontrolsystems ofinternational consortiums and commercialfirms 135
1.4.2EvolutionandtrendsindevelopmentofSCcontrolcomplexesabroad 137
1.5TrendsinrestructuringAerospaceIndustry 147
1.5.1Whyrestructure? 148
Military-politicalcauses 148
Economicfactors 150
Resourcesrelatedreasons 152
1.5.2Analysisofrestructuringofaerospacecompanies 153
1.5.3The aimsofrestructuring 162
1.6Reliabilityasthe basis of efficient functioningofspace systemsinthe future 170
1.6.1Insuringreliabilityofadvancedlaunchsystems 170
1.6.2Supportingactiveoperation lifeofdurablespacecraft(DSC) 177
Longevitylevelattained byforeignspacecraft 178
The longevityreachedondomestic-made spacecraft 179
1.6.3Insuringthe reliabilityandsafetyoflonglifespacestations 180
The mainprinciplesofinsuringthe reliabilityandsafetyoflonglifeorbitalstations 182
Designandengineeringprinciplesofinsuringthe reliabilityandsafetyoflonglive
orbitalstations (LLOS) 183
X ConlenslX
Principlesofmaintenance and repairoflongliveorbitalstations (LLOS) 184
Safeguardingthe requiredreliabilityandsafetyofthe international spacestation 185
1.6.4Insuringthequalityandreliabilityofthe Russiansegment ininternational
spaceprograms 188
1.6.5Optimizationofstrategiesusedtodeployandreplenish
multi-satellitespacesystems basedonreliabilityand costcriteria 190
1.6.6Insuringfailure-freeoperation ofadvanceddurablespacecraftandcarrier
rockets 193
1.6.7Developmentofspacesystems and components
quality controlmethods andtheirapplicationforevaluation
andmaintenance ofproductquality 196
1.6.8Spaceinsurance:summing upthe pastandlookingtothefuture 197
1.7Spaceandnational security 208
Part2.The MainTrendsin DevelopmentofAstronautics inRussia 241
2.1Aleap inimprovementoforbitalfacilities 248
2.1.1Spacemonitoring systems 252
2.1.2Navigationsystems 255
2.1.3Spaceenergy,production andmedicine 255
2.1.4Fundamentalresearch 256
2.1.5Spacemanufacturing technologiesandmaterialsstudy 258
Spacebiotechnologiesandgeneticengineering 259
Spacebiologyandmedicine 260
Safeguardingtheasteroid safety 262
2.1.6Creatingprerequisitesinscienceandtechnology 262
2.1.7Multi-functionalconstructions 267
2.1.8Advancedspacematerials 271
2.1.9Multi-functionalspacesystems 277
2.2 Russia'slaunchvehicles 284
2.2.1Carrierrockets 290
2.2.2Carrierrocketbooster units 304
2.2.3Carrierrocketsbuiltaround the ICBMwithdrawnfromservice 310
2.2.4Advancedcarrierrockets 317
2.2.5Newgenerationlaunchvehiclesbasedonmulti-purpose rocketbooster 322
2.2.6Reusablespacesystems 326
2.3 Mannedastronautics asthe trendline 333
2.4 Power plantsandpropulsion units ofspacerocketry 347
2.4.1Prospectivetrends inimprovementofpower plantsandpropulsionunits 355
2.4.2Remote power supplysystem 360
2.4.3Onboardsolarpower installations 364
2.4.4Nuclearpowerplantsandelectricalpropulsionunits 367
2.4.5Prospectivetrendsinimprovementofchemicalrocketengine 375
2.4.6Electricrocketengines 382
2.4.7Unconventional rocketenginesandtechniques ofspacetravel 383
2.5The necessityofdualuse technologiesinspace 386
Part3.The Ground-BasedInfrastructure 395
3.1 Russias's spaceports, state andprospects 397
3.1.1The history ofspaceports'construction 397
3.1.2Russia'sspaceports'ground infrastructure today 405
3.1.3The maintrendsindevelopmentofRussia'sspaceports 413
3.1.4Comparative estimationofvariantsoflaunchcomplexes 419
3.1.5Problemstobeaddressedinbuildingspaceports.Trendsin
development ofspaceports 426
3.2The state andprospects ofdevelopmentofspacecraftground-based
facilitiesandcontrol systems 430
3.2.1Generalprinciplesofbuildingaground-basedcontrolcomplex 430
Aimandapplicationofaground-basedcontrolcomplex 430
DemandsmadeofthemaincharacteristicsofGBCC 431
The mainsystemsofGBCC 432
Command andinstrumentationpostsofGBCC 434
Informationrelayspacesystem 437
Structuralpeculiaritiesoffar-outspacecraftGBCC 439
Choiceofdesigncharacteristicsoflongdistancespacecommunication radiolines 440
Antennasystems forlongrangespacecommunication 444
3.2.2ThestateandthemaintrendsindevelopmentofGBCC 449
TheexperienceofcreatingandoperatingRussia'sground-basedSCcontrolcomplexes 449
TheexistingstructureofSCground-basedcomplexesandcontrolsystems 452
Thestateandprospectivedevelopmentofcomplexesandsystems ofthesingle
FederalSCGBACC 457
The principlesofbuildingmulti-purposeinformation relayspacesystem 465
Thestateandprospectsofdevelopment ofautomationsystems 470
3.3 Operationsystems.The state andprospectivedevelopment 476
3.4The prospects ofdevelopmentofsoftwareforspace 501
Part4.Spaceexploration andecology 507
4.1 Spacecontribution to ecology 509
4.2The impactofspace andmissile technologyon the environment 517
4.3 Pollution ofthe Earth'ssurface 526
4.3.1Launchingsitesandecology 526
4.3.2Pollutionfromoperatinglaunchingsites 533
4.3.3Pollutionbyspillageofrocketfuelcomponents 539
4.3.4The fallofrocketparts 543
4.3.5Impactofspacecraftandtheirfragments 548
4.4 Near-earthspaceandspace exploration 553
4.4.1Launchers'engineemission 553
4.4.2Spacejunk 556
4.4.3Radioactivecontamination ofNES 561
4.5 Environment-friendly space technologyhasno alternatives 562
4.6 Internationallawaspects ofspace ecology 571
Conclusion 575
Bibliography 577
Abbreviations 581
Index 587
About the authors 592
Introduction
Astronautics asascience,and thenasanapplied industry, took shape inthe
mid-20th century.This,however,was preceded by the excitinghistory of the
birth and development of the idea of space flights, first generated by fantasy
and then supported by theoretical investigations and practical experiments.
Originally, the human fantasy flew into space using fabulous means or the
forcesofnature (tornadoes and hurricanes).On the eveofthe 20th century,fic
tion authors resorted intheir descriptions to technical devicessuch asballoons
and super-powerful cannons and, finally, to rockets as such. Generations of
young romantics grew up enchanted by the works of [Verne, H.Wells,
A.Tolstoyand A.Kazantsev,whose subject matterwas space travel.
The fantasts' fantasies spurred on the scientists, leading to
K.ETsiolkovsky's words: "First came the thoughts, fantasies and fairytales,
then the precisecal-culations."
Publicationinthe early20th century oftheoretical works by spacepioneers
K.E.Tsiolkovsky, EA.Tsander, YuVKondratyuk, R.H.Goddard, H.Hanswint,
R.Esnault-Pelterie, H.Oberth and V.Homan reined the flight of fantasy, but
gave riseto new trends in science.Thus attempts were made to find out how
astronautics couldbenefitmankindandwhatimpact itwouldmake onpeople.
Itshould benoted thatthe idea ofcombining humanactivity onEarthwith
that in space was first propounded by the founder of theoretical space
research, KE.Tsiolkovsky. His axiom, "The Earth is the cradle of reason, but
one cannotlivein the cradlefor ever"was in fact an alternative - either Earth
or space.Tsiolkovsky never believed that man's getaway into space would be
caused by a depletion of life on Earth. On the contrary, he propounded the
rational trans-formation of our planet's nature by virtue of human intellect.
People,he asserted, would change"the Earth's surface,itsoceans,atmosphere,
plants and themselves. Theywill control the climateand reignsupreme inthe
solar system as well as on Earth, which for eons to come will remain the
human habitat."
In the USSR, the beginning of practicalwork on space programs isassoci
ated with the names of S.P.Korolevand M.KTikhonravov.
In early 1945, M.KTikhonravov organized a team of experts at the
ResearchInstitute ofPropulsionSystems, setting before them the task ofengi
neering a piloted high-altitude rocket vehicle (a cabin with two astronauts)
intended for studying the upper atmosphere. The team included
N.G.Chernyshev, P.I.Ivanov, V.N.Galkovsky, G.M.Moskalenko and others. It
was decided to use as a basis a single-stage rocket powered by a liquid fuel
motorand designed forverticaltake-offto an altitude of up to 200km.
This project (dubbed BP-190) envisioned fulfillmentof the following tasks:
A. I. Kiselev at al., Astronautics
© Springer-Verlag Wien 2003
2 Astronautics:summaryandprospects
• the study of weightlessness during man's brief free flightin a hermetically
closedcabin
• the study of the cabin's mass center movement and its movement around
the mass center after separation from the carrierrocket
• obtaining data concerning the upper atmosphere; checking the operability
of the systems (separation, descent, stabilization, landing, etc.) that make
up the high-altitude cabin
K.E.Tsiolkovskyand M.K.Tikhonravov,
thedesignerofthe firstSovietliquid propellantrocket GIRD-09
The BP-190 projectwas the firstto offerthe followingsolutions thatfound
use in modern spacecraft (SC):
• parachute-aided descent system; soft-landing brake rocket motor; separa
tion system using explosivebolts
• electric-contact boom for pre-ignition of the soft-landing motor; catapult
free sealed cabinwith lifesupportsystems
• cabin stabilization system for use beyond dense atmospheric layers with
the aid of smallthrust nozzles
Overall, the BP-190 project was a package of new technological solutions
and concepts well-proven now by the course of development of space rock
etry in Russia and other countries. In 1946, M.K.Tikhonravov presented the
ideas of the BP-190 project to LY.Stalin. In 1947, Tikhonravov and his team