Assessing Aptitude and Attitude Development in a Translation Skills Course

20 Pages·2012·0.72 MB·English

Assessing Aptitude and Attitude Development in a
Translation Skills Course

MOHAMED AMIN A. MEKHEIMER

King Khalid University

ABSTRACT:

This study investigates the effects on EFL students of using Blackboard technology and
online dictionaries in developing translating skills and building positive attitudes to-
wards translation in male Saudi college students. The study compares two groups of
students in a translation course; one in a traditional, face-to-face setting (control) and
the other (experimental) in an online course taught via Blackboard, which incorporated
an online dictionary. These groups are compared in terms of their translation skills as
well as their attitudes toward the course. The study reveals an improvement in trans-
lation skills as well as indicates increased positive attitudes towards translation in the
e-learning environments of Blackboard.

KEYWORDS

Translation Teaching, Learning Management System, Blackboard, English, Arabic, Aptitudes, Attitudes,
Online Dictionary

INTRODUCTION

In foreign language classrooms, dictionaries are heavily used on the presumption that they
are useful for certain activities and that most foreign language (FL) learners consider them
to be essential (Christianson, 1997). Although few studies exist, there is growing momen-
tum in research for investigating the pedagogical effects of dictionaries in the FL classroom
(Bogaards, 1994; Bogaards, Laufer & Varantola, 1996; Bruton, 2007; Chen, 2011; Chris-
tianson, 1997; Cook-Sather, 2003; Kaalep & Mikk, 2008; Law, 2009; Piotrowski, 1989;
Ringberg, Luna, Reihlen & Peracchio, 2010; Zanettin, 2009).

Research on dictionary use in foreign language classrooms is on the rise. Most of this re-
search is directed towards the instructional perspective of actual dictionary use (Bogaards,
et al., 1996). Reviewing relevant literature on lexicography, dictionary-based pedagogy re-
search and the use of technology in foreign language teaching and translation, Fought
(1987) indicates that “a number of findings and possibilities” reported in prior research have
served as the foundation for efficient use of “machine-aided translation systems, improved
dictionary look-up, convenient word-processing systems and powerful mass storage sys-
tems which helped to bring cost-effective machine translation” (p. 39).

This investigation builds on prior research conducted by Aldosari & Mekheimer (2010) to ex-
plore the effects of using Blackboard® (Blackboard Learn with Release 9) for presenting
Translation II (an intermediate level translation course) to EFL college students, which is the
subject of the present study. The foundational study by Aldosari & Mekheimer (2010) aimed
at exploring the features and web resources available in the Online Dictionary
(http://dictionary.reference.com/) to enhance the translation of culturally loaded lexicon in
students of Translation I. Translation I is a prerequisite course for two more advanced
courses in translation training, namely Translation II and Translation III. Translation I intro-
duces the theory of translation with translation drills in simple sentences and short texts.
Translation II is an intermediate course for teaching translation theory and practice for stu-
dents enrolled in the 7th level (equal to the junior year) and Translation III is taught in the
CALICO Journal, 29(2), p-p 321-340. © 2012 CALICO Journal
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CALICO Journal, 29(2) Assessing Aptitude and Attitude in a Translation Skills Course
8th level (the senior year), and this final course is geared towards teaching the theory and
practice of translating religious, particularly Islamic, texts; these two levels are tantamount
to junior and senior years of academic study in the undergraduate program at the university
where data collection occurred.

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

In a wide-ranging research project tapping into the use of dictionaries for learning foreign
languages in Europe by over 1,000 learners, Atkins & Knowles (1990) showed that bilingual
dictionaries were used by the majority of the students (75%). However, the study also
showed that this widespread use of bilingual dictionaries for FL learning does not inevitably
mean that such dictionaries are more supportive for foreign language learners in their learn-
ing endeavors. Guillot & Kenning (1994) explain:

… even at university level, they tend to rely all too exclusively on bilingual
dictionaries, either as an easy option, or simply because they are not aware
of the limitations of bilingual dictionaries and/or of how monolingual dictionar-
ies can contribute to their learning: nor are they always aware, when they
have used a monolingual dictionary, of difficulties or deficiencies in handling
the information (p. 70).

However, little research has been conducted to check the effectiveness of monolingual and
bilingual dictionaries on users’ affect and achievement. Some studies investigated the ef-
fects of dictionaries on motivation for FL learning, and on the dictionary as a learning tool
for all language skills (Béjoint & Moulin, 1987; Bruton, 2007; Christianson, 1997; Hart-
mann, 1989; McAlpine & Myles, 2003; Snell-Hornby, 1984). Studies of attitudes towards the
use of information and communication technology (ICT) have not dealt with the use of elec-
tronic CD-ROM and online dictionaries in learning environments, but some research has in-
vestigated students’ attitudes towards courses delivered in new e-learning environments
(Cepni, Tas & Kose, 2006; Collins & Veal, 2004; Le & Le, 1999; Lomicka, 1998; Omar,
1992; Simsek, 2008). In a relevant study by Yoon & Hirvela (2004), the researchers exam-
ined students’ corpus use behavior (their access to a wide variety of sources arranged in a
database or corpus) and their perceptions of the strengths and weaknesses of corpora as a
tool for second language writing. The study’s qualitative and quantitative data indicate that
overall the students perceived the corpus approach as beneficial to the development of sec-
ond language (L2) writing skill and increased confidence toward L2 writing.

In a synthesis of research, Schneider (2001) evaluated a collection of papers from the field
of empirical meta-lexicography, including eight papers that examined a wide range of as-
pects of dictionary use. Schneider (2001, p. 154) describes such research as

“… a variety of studies, both large-scale and small-scale, involving between
only four and over one thousand subjects, mostly learners of English as a for-
eign language or translation students from different (homogeneous or hetero-
geneous) linguistic backgrounds. All kinds of dictionaries are used, monolin-
gual and bilingual, general and specialized. The research tools employed in
the experiments include questionnaires of various formats and also direct ob-
servation; the tasks range from comprehension and evaluation to production
and translation (L2 & L1). The results are considered immediately relevant for
language teaching and translator training, and also dictionary making.”

Some of the research outlined in this synthesis study indicates that research into natural
professional translation processes and the use of specialized dictionaries and electronic
translation tools is still lacking. Research reviews suggest that lexicographers and authors of
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dictionary workbooks will have to devise new techniques in order to solve the problems
posed by such asymmetrical equivalence (Gallagher, 1993).

By the same token, prior research has suggested that dictionaries, electronically available
on CD-ROMs, online, or in printed form, can potentially assist learners to expand their vo-
cabulary range and increase their awareness of common grammatical errors (Summers,
1988; Tang, 1997). In addition, Aldosari & Mekheimer (2010) claim that monolingual dic-
tionaries, especially electronic or online ones, are more helpful than other types of dictionar-
ies as they detail information about idiomatic usage, common collocations, register, etymol-
ogy, cultural loadings of lexicon, and illustrative examples.

In this regard, computer-assisted language learning (CALL) applications, such as the use of
the web, online dictionaries and dictionary CD-ROMS, which integrate speech recognition
and pronunciation software, have emerged from a need in language learning and teaching
for ‘‘self-paced interactive learning environments [which provide] controlled interactive
speaking practice outside the classroom.” (Ehsani and Knodt, 1998, p. 45)

There is some research indicating that dictionary work in the classroom can positively affect
incidental vocabulary learning, including the retention of words that have been ‘picked up’
during listening and reading activities (Fraser, 1999; Hulstijn, Hollander & Greidanus, 1996;
Knight, 1994; Luppescu & Day, 1993). Furthermore, both teachers and students can agree,
in principle, that the main purpose of a dictionary is to prevent or reduce communication
conflicts, which may arise from lexical deficit (Hartmann, 1989).

Though not everyone agrees on which type of dictionary is most effective, there is broad
consensus on the efficiency of dictionary use in the classroom. However, with the advance-
ment of technology and the dramatic change towards active e-learning, focus on using on-
line dictionaries and e-translators is growing significantly (Ballesteros & Croft, 1997; Hong-
lan, 2005; Hull & Grefenstetter, 1996; Provaznikova, 2009). Aldosari and Mekheimer
(2010), concurring on the increasing use of online dictionaries, note that “the use of online
dictionaries for developing translating skills is better thought of as acculturating.” (p. 547)

In regard to learning efficiency, Yang & Chen (2007) demonstrate that e-learning can lead
to enhanced language learning in the classroom, as well as positive attitudes towards the
coursework learned in a technology-based language classroom. Research by Huang, Chern
& Lin (2009) supports the potential positive effects of online reading programs, such as the
learning management system (LMS) in the enhancement of reading comprehension. Moreo-
ver, the effectiveness of online learning in the English language classroom has been well
documented in research (Ganderton, 1998; Hellebrandt, 1999; Irons, Keel & Bielema, 2002;
Kelm, 1992; Lebel, Olshtain & Weiss, 2005; Lee, 1997, 2002; MacDonald and McAteer,
2003; Newsome, 2008; O’Toole and Absalom, 2003; Poole, 2006; Sanaoui & Lapkin, 1992;
Stubbs and Martin, 2003; Tallent-Runnels et al., 2006; Van Handle & Corl, 1998; War-
schauer, 1996, 2000).

In addition, over the last decade or so language learning schools worldwide have responded
to the need of incorporating and integrating technology into classroom practices by rethink-
ing their pedagogical approaches to suit the changing needs of their student populations.
For instance, language educators have seen the necessity of introducing new technologies
into the classroom (Mekheimer, 2005; Richardson, 2000). Therefore, multimedia and Inter-
net technologies, combining video, sound, pictures, animation and text, such as Longman’s
Interactive Dictionary, have afforded the production of a wide variety of educational applica-
tions to second/foreign language learning (Brett & Nash, 1999). Researchers have demon-
strated that

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an on-line dictionary of English phraseology that illustrates common colloca-
tions with sentence examples can help advanced learners to improve their
writing skills in English and expand their passive and active vocabulary.
(McAlpine & Myles, 2003, p. 72)

Furthermore, most research indicates that online dictionaries provide other supportive web
resources, such as thesauruses and etymology tracers that may be helpful in getting learn-
ers across cultural usages of words, denotations and connotations, synonymy and an-
tonymy, hyponymy, meronymy, holonymy, and other functions (Aldosari & Mekheimer,
2010; Ballesteros & Croft, 1997; Honglan, 2005; Hull & Grefenstetter, 1996; Koren, 1997;
Provaznikova, 2009). Koren (1997) notes that the electronic dictionary “is now the EFL stu-
dents’ first choice because of its main advantage, which is speed” (p.7). She further notes
that such dictionaries have additional merits in terms of usage, such as a parallel and multi-
path (multilingual) search, together with other functions such as those of the e-thesaurus
(Koren, 1997, p.7).

In fact, these functions are highly important for EFL students of Translation who can use the
electronic dictionary mainly for finding the meanings of the English words in their native
tongue. By the same token, Sharpe (1995) explains that “the advantage of the electronic
dictionary and the familiarity of today’s young people with electronic devices will eventually
relegate the printed notion of ‘dictionary’ to a secondary sense” (p. 49).

In fact, the primary study (Aldosari & Mekheimer, 2010), which informs the present investi-
gation, suggests that trained learners use available information provided by the online dic-
tionary before deciding on the meaning of the new word — a feature that seems to have
made the most use of an online dictionary in the electronic milieu. An examination of rele-
vant literature lends credence to the notion that both online and electronic dictionaries can
relieve the effects of phonotactic constraints on lexical processing in bilinguals and
monolonguals in translational tasks (Altenberg & Cairns, 1983; Wang, Tsai & Hsu, 2009),
enhance pronunciation skills through providing automatic word/speech recognition tools
(Damper & Marchand, 2006; Fosler-Lussier & Morgan, 1999; Goronzy, Rapp & Kompe,
2004; Handley, 2009; Mansoor-ul-Haq & Ahmad, 2010), provide other linguistic tools for
natural language processing (Suárez, Riudavets, Figueroa & Cabrera, 2007), and help in
cross-language information retrieval (Levow, Oard & Resnik, 2005; Savoy, 1994, 2003;
Wang, et al., 2009).

In a case study by Guillot & Kenning (1994), the researchers evaluated the effects of an
electronic dictionary, the Robert Electronique Project (hereafter RE), in an attempt to judge
and utilize the would-be advantages of electronic monolingual dictionaries as language
learning aids. They conclude that

The RE has … convinced us of its worth. The case for introducing students to
the use of monolingual dictionaries need not be restated. And if we are to do
so, then there is no doubt that the user-friendliness of the RE can make it a
more manageable venture. It is not an “easy” dictionary by any means. But,
on the evidence of the subset of functions we have used, the various facilities
it offers for a graded and differentiated approach can make it accessible even
to the less linguistically agile. (Guillot & Kenning, 1994, p. 72)

Even when learners are unskilled in electronic or online dictionary use, they may rely mostly
on monolingual information (Guillot & Kenning, 1994; Sharpe, 1995; Snell-Hornby, 1984;
Stein, 1990), and build up their guessing skills (Scholfield, 1982; Wilss, 1990). With pro-
gress in these skills, the monolingual information provided by monolingual dictionaries, in
paperback or electronic format, will gain relevance and importance (Koren, 1997; Walz,
1990; Yorkey, 1970), first in comprehension of unfamiliar entries (Kaplan, 1975; McAlpine &
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Myles, 2003; Nuccorini, 1992; Tomaszczyk, 1983) and later in their rendering into the
translation language (Ahmed, 1988; Baxter, 1980; Nida, 1982), which will increase their
translational skills (Scholfield & Gitsaki, 1996; Wilss, 1990). According to Wilss (1990),
translation is not a question of routinely rehashing a piece of discourse from one language
into another. It involves more than just reproducing the text - it seeks to recreate and re-
enact the cultural and metalinguistic features of the source language text so it may be re-
lived in the translation language as if it were originally created therein. This will help in the
comprehension of the original text through “enabling understanding between individuals of
different linguistic communicative and cultural communities” (p.21).

In summary, some researchers (e.g., Aldosari & Mekheimer, 2010; Guillot & Kenning, 1994;
Koren, 1997; McAlpine & Myles, 2003; Nuccorini, 1992) claim that monolingual and online
dictionaries can lead to a better understanding of contextual meanings and cultural connota-
tions of vocabulary for enhancing translational skills. Moreover, other researchers in user
studies compared monolingual dictionaries to other types of bilingual dictionaries and re-
vealed that the benefits of monolingual dictionaries exceed the benefits of bilingual diction-
aries (Al-Zarei, 2010; Chen, 2011; Laufer and Hadar, 1997; Laufer and Kimmel, 1997; Lau-
fer and Levitzky-Aviad, 2006; Lew, 2004; Raudaskoski, 2002; Thumb, 2004). Most of these
studies revealed monolingual dictionaries had greater positive effects on the comprehension
and production of unfamiliar words, as well as on the retention of vocabulary.

RESEARCH OBJECTIVE AND QUESTIONS

This study aimed at identifying the effects of using the online dictionary website and Black-
board learning management system (LMS) on developing translation skills required at the
intermediate level of language proficiency. In addition, it sought to explore the attitudes of
the students towards learning Translation II. The course relied on classroom practice (vir-
tual or physical) as well as home assignments either via Blackboard for the LMS group or on
paper-and-pencil for the traditional control group; such practical translation sessions in-
volved actually rendering the assigned translations, twice per week. The research question
and sub-questions of the present study are as follows:
• What are the effects of Blackboard as linked to the Online Dictionary on develop-
ing translation skills and generating positive attitudes to translation in EFL stu-
dents?
1. What is the effect of Blackboard linked to the Online Dictionary on
translation skills of EFL students as determined by a translation apti-
tude test?
2. What is the effect of Blackboard linked to the Online Dictionary on the
attitudes of EFL students towards Translation II as determined by an
attitude survey?

Research Hypotheses

1. There will be statistically significant differences between the translation aptitude test
mean scores of the control group and those of the experimental group to the advan-
tage of the experimental group participants attributable to the medium of instruction
(Blackboard LMS) and the online dictionary.
2. There will be statistically significant differences between the translation attitude sur-
vey mean scores of the control group and those of the experimental group to the ad-
vantage of the experimental group participants attributable to the medium of in-
struction (Blackboard LMS) and the online dictionary.

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METHODOLOGY OF RESEARCH

Method

The study employs a triangulation of research methods, including experimental designs and
descriptive introspection of attitudes; two groups studying Translation II, one in a traditional
setting (control) and the other (experimental group) was taught via Blackboard. They were
pre-tested using validated scales of aptitude and attitude; mean scores of the pretesting
administration for both groups of participants in the traditional medium of instruction
(teacher-centered, paper dictionary-based, and classroom-oriented) and the technology-
based medium of Blackboard (i.e., Blackboard facilities, facilities of the online dictionary,
and in virtual classrooms) were collected to be compared with post-testing scores on both
scales towards the end of the experiment. The learning management system of Blackboard
(Release 9) was utilized to give students access to readings in translation theory as well as
passages in Arabic and English as assignments, using the Announcements, Assignments,
and Course Instructor email features to introduce students to the syllabus of the course and
the assignments required from them. The LMS of Blackboard was used since it consisted of
the tools used for class management and for student administration and progress tracking.
In addition to these standard LMS tools, the system has other additional features and tools
necessary for continuous assessments, which were implemented during the study as effec-
tive learning features (Hoic-Bozic, Mornar & Boticki, 2009). The online dictionary (diction-
ary.reference.com) with its accompanying facilities of Thesaurus, Encyclopedia, Translator,
and Web (a feature which enables the online dictionary webpage visitors to check the word
in similar websites, citations and quotes, currently replaced by another feature named
Quotes) was presented to students in the study with some preliminary training for these
features and their use in processing texts for translation.

Participants

The participants in this study consisted of 83 male students enrolled in the English depart-
ment at a major Saudi Arabian university, identified as intermediate proficiency level stu-
dents of EFL. The native language of all participants was Arabic. Although no proficiency test
was given to the two groups in the experiment, the researcher determined the three groups
were roughly equivalent in terms of proficiency, based on information provided from the ac-
ademic advisor, student grade point averages, or from their statements in Part A of the
Attitude Scale (see Appendix B). Assignment of the groups was randomly done.

Instruments

Translation aptitude test

An aptitude test in Translation II was designed and implemented to tap into developed
translation skills of the students, commensurate with the syllabus and the objectives of the
course. The test was made up of six passages, three in Arabic to be rendered into English,
and three short texts in English to be rendered into Arabic (See Appendix A).

Criteria of assessment included accuracy in reaching the intended meaning in the translation
language and choice of words (semantic accuracy), contextual appropriateness of whole text
meaning (pragmatic competency), grammatical and syntactic accuracy, and stylistic appro-
priateness of the translation language.

The test was normalized according to standard procedures in the department; a committee
of three instructors in translation revised the test in terms of difficulty, appropriateness to
departmental objectives of teaching translation, and timing. The researcher who developed
the test was a member of this committee.

The Translation Aptitude Test was validated following strict and comprehensive procedures.
First, the test was reviewed and revised by a panel of five translation assistant professors,
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who are faculty members in the college, to determine whether or not the number and con-
tent of questions and the scope of the tasks are sufficiently measured according to the crite-
ria reached in the focus group. The validation panel approved the test with some modifica-
tions: they suggested shortening some passages to be appropriate for the test time. The
test-retest reliability statistic was run and scores were analyzed using Cronbach's Alpha.
The reliability coefficient was found to be .84, suggesting the test was reliable.

Translation attitude scale

The attitude scale was made up of a 37-item, 3-point Likert scale. The purpose of develop-
ing this scale was to reveal the effects of the instructional medium of using Blackboard and
online dictionaries on improving translation skills of EFL students and their attitudes toward
Translation II. The attitude scale first draws background information in Part A, and then it
elicits the participants' reactions to using the online dictionary in Translation II (See Appen-
dix B).

The scale was validated by a jury of 8 assistant professors, 3 professors, and 5 associate
professors of Translation, TEFL, and Applied Linguistics from five universities in Saudi Arabia
and Egypt. They revised the scale in terms of wording and attitudinal appropriateness.
Then, using a test-retest method, reliability was assessed using Cronbach's alpha coeffi-
cients and intra-class correlation coefficients. Item-to-scale correlation was assessed using
Spearman's rank correlations (ρ) between scale scores and their constituent items. The reli-
ability coefficient of the scale using Cronbach Alpha was (α = 0.94) which is an appropriate
value.

Materials
Short selections of authentic texts from newspapers, magazines, English literature (drama,
novel, short stories, etc.), and similar text corpora were used as the training materials for
the translation sessions. In some cases, glossing was provided to help students understand
culturally loaded meanings of the lexicon of these corpora, which might not be available in
the dictionary.

Significance of the Study

Corpus-based research collects information about “authentic uses of a target language from
a wide variety of sources and then arranges this input in a database, or corpus, in such a
way that learners can study specific language uses within the corpus” (Yoon & Hirvela,
2004, p. 257). In the past two decades, corpus research has had an undeniable impact on
language teaching, but there is still a gap between what applied corpus linguistics can offer
and what teachers can do with corpora in language teaching practice (Mukherjee, 2006; Mil-
lar & Lehtinen, 2008). This study helps to bridge this gap between theory and practice in
corpus-based research.

Furthermore, this study helps to inform e-learning deanship specialists regarding online dic-
tionaries and other translation assistive technology within Blackboard. Findings will also help
in redesigning translation courses to match the requirements of and students’ needs for de-
veloping online human and machine translation skills commensurate with the new environ-
ment of e-learning. In addition, it will help in providing insightful pedagogical implications
for integrating e-learning for teaching translation courses.

The Experiment: Procedures of the Study

This study occurred during the second semester of the academic year (mid-January to mid-
May, 2010). The aptitude test and the attitude scale were administered to students in both
the experimental and control groups. All students were taught by the same instructor to
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avoid instructor-related variance that could affect the results of the study. To control for
group equivalence, a t-test was calculated to compare mean scores of both groups on a
translation pretest (see Table 1).

Table 1 shows that there were no significant differences among these two groups, t(81) =
0.88, p > .05, indicating group equivalence prior to the study. To control for group equiva-
lence, a t-test was calculated to compare mean scores of both groups on pretesting on
translation attitude as shown in Table (2) below:

Table 1
Group equivalence of control and experimental participants on translation aptitudes

Group Mean df SD t-value
Control (n = 40) 14.3 81 3.9
Experimental (n = 43) 13.3 6.3 0.88

Table 2 shows that there were no significant differences among these two groups, t(81) =
0.76, p > .05, indicating group equivalence in terms of participants’ attitudes to the course
prior to the study.

Table 2
Group equivalence of control and experimental participants on translation attitudes

Group Mean df SD t-value
Control (n = 40) 78 81 11.6
Experimental (n = 43) 76 11.9 0.76

The experimental group was enrolled in Translation II using the LMS medium of Blackboard
with an active link to an online dictionary available for free on the Internet, which could also
be accessed through a Blackboard link. Students participated in two classes (80 minutes-
per-week) in a networked computer lab. The experimental participants were enrolled in the
course with the same syllabus in this e-learning lab with access to the online dictionary,
which has other hyperlinks to support web resources. Students were guided as to how to
use the online dictionary to reach out for the correct equivalents that are congruous with
context.

In one class each week, students were given short English-to-Arabic translation texts ex-
tracted from authentic corpora representing the English culture during classroom sessions
for translation exercises in a connected lab, using the online dictionary. In the other class,
they were given short Arabic-to-English translation texts, also drawn from culturally repre-
sentative authentic material to render in class using the same online dictionary. They were
asked to read the English texts and to comprehend them as a first step. Then, they were
asked to look for unfamiliar vocabulary and look them up in the dictionary online. However,
they were asked not to resort to the Dictionary’s Translator function unless they perform
further editing on word choice, syntax and style in order to produce not only grammatically
and syntactically correct sentences, but also to come up with culturally appropriate rendi-
tions of the sentences.

In each class, students worked mostly collaboratively on the texts, but occasionally they
were asked to work individually according to task requirements. They were assigned short
texts on the skills they were trained on during the in-lab class. These assignments were
sent to them using the assignment function of Blackboard. Students used Blackboard to re-
turn the completed assignments to the course instructor’s email.

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Students in the control group were enrolled in Translation II in a traditional fashion of short
translation assignments to be completed in class and for homework. Students worked in
small cooperative groups or individually as they wished. However, it should be noted that
the control group had access only to a paperback dictionary set in English and Arabic, while
the experimental participants in the e-learning group had access to the dictionary online and
other related services, such as Web, Thesaurus, Translator, and Encyclopedia.

Near the end of the study students in both groups were post-tested using the same transla-
tion and attitude scale. An independent groups’ t-test was used to compare gain scores be-
tween pre-testing and post-testing across groups. Though the attitude test was specifically
designed to assess participants’ attitudes towards Blackboard and online dictionary use, it
was still post-administered to the control group, who was also enrolled in other courses on
Blackboard.

The aptitude test was scored according to the criteria cited earlier and differences between
pre-administration and post-administration of the scale were calculated.

FINDINGS

Table 3 shows the t-test results for the differences in mean scores on the aptitude test in
Translation II for both the control and the experimental groups. These results show that the
experimental group’s mean scores are significantly higher than the control group scores
(t(81) = 2.79, p < 0.01). Such findings lead the researcher to accept the first hypothesis
and conclude that the instructional e-learning medium is significantly more effective than
the traditional method for teaching translation.

Table 3
Means, Standard Deviations, Gain Scores, and t-value of Pre-testing/Post-testing on Trans-
lation Aptitudes

Aptitude Test
Pre- Post- df Mean SD t- p
Groups testing testing Gain value
Mean Mean Score
score score
Control (n=40) 14.3 19.6 81 5.3 5.7 2.79 0.0066
Experimental (n=43) 13.3 22.6 9.3 7.2

Table 4 below shows t-test results for the differences in mean scores on the attitude scale in
Translation II for both the control and the experimental groups. Table 4 shows that there
were significant differences among these two groups, t(81) = 2.48, p < 0.05, to the good of
the experimental group participants. These findings support the second hypothesis, sug-
gesting that the instructional e-learning medium is significantly more favourable, and more
conducive to positive attitudes in EFL students than the traditional method.

Table 4
Means, Standard Deviations, Gain Scores, and t-value of Pre-testing/Post-testing on Trans-
lation Attitudes

Attitude Test
Pre- Post- df Mean SD t- p
Groups testing testing Gain value
Mean Mean Score
score score
Control (n=40) 78 87.2 81 9.2 18.2 2.48 0.0116
Experimental (n= 43) 76 93.4 17.4 10.8
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ANALYSIS

Findings from the aptitude test results suggest that the online dictionary in the electronic
medium of Blackboard and its supportive web resources, such as thesauri and etymology
tracers, help the experimental students to learn more about words, their cultural usages,
denotations, and connotational meanings as well as the word usage in context, which is not
often available in paper dictionary based classrooms of translation instruction. This finding is
commensurate with prior research in this line (e.g., Aldosari & Mekheimer, 2010; Balles-
teros & Croft, 1997; Honglan, 2005; Hull & Grefenstetter, 1996; Koren, 1997; Provaznik-
ova, 2009; Sharpe, 1995).

Findings from the attitudes scale indicate that the students were generally positive towards
the use of corpus activities in translating short texts, using the facilities of the online dic-
tionary and Blackboard. They agreed that the online dictionary was particularly useful for
acquiring usage patterns of words and enhancing their reading, translating, and writing
skills. Respondents also indicated that the online dictionary is easy to use and is more help-
ful for learning the meanings of vocabulary, usage of phrases and idioms, and the grammar
of language in context. These findings provide evidence that e-learning of translation, using
Blackboard and an online dictionary, can be conducive to improved positive attitudes to-
wards translation courses. This is also in line with some prior research which indicated that
e-learning can lead to enhanced language learning in the classroom, as well as generate
positive attitudes towards the coursework learned in a technology-based language class-
room (e.g., Huang et al., 2009; Yang & Chen, 2007).

Interestingly, as they used campus labs during class time and worked at home, experimen-
tal group participants did not report serious difficulty in gaining access to computers and the
Internet. This finding is contradictory to Sun’s (2000) investigation, which recognized that
Internet connectivity and speed posed major problems in corpus use for classroom teach-
ing/learning applications. In addition, while some studies, (Sun, 2000; Thurstun & Candlin,
1998) expressed concerns about the new forms of display of corpus information, partici-
pants in this study did not report problems with using the webpage of the online dictionary.
Most learners generally seemed to know how to deal with the features of corpora display on
the online dictionary page. The findings on attitude and aptitude levels are incongruent with
other prior research, which reported that students over-rely on bilingual dictionaries as an
easy option at hand (Guillot & Kenning, 1994). Nonetheless, findings from the present study
suggest that the use of a monolingual online dictionary is still more informative lexically and
culturally to the students of translation much more than bilingual dictionaries.

DISCUSSION

Numerous explanations for these findings, some of which were mentioned briefly earlier,
can be offered here. First, differences in the amount and type of emphasis the instructor
placed on the online dictionary work in each class may have had an effect on students’ per-
ceptions of the favorable uses of corpus information available in the online dictionary. The
experimental participants were engaged in more hands-on and in-class corpus-related class
activities that were not available for the control participants, who were encouraged to ex-
plore the corpus outside class by using printed bilingual dictionaries. Therefore, having re-
ceived more direct training and practice in corpus use, the experimental-class students may
have been better positioned to develop favorable feelings about corpora, and more en-
hanced skills to access, acquire and enhance vocabulary acquisition in contextualized sen-
tences.

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