Artisan Or Artist?. A History of the Teaching of Art and Crafts in English Schools

339 Pages·1967·24.17 MB·English

by  Gordon Sutton (Auth.)

Ornament on title page from 2nd Grade Freehand Drawing,
Science and Art Dept., 1882
ARTISAN OR ARTIST?
A History of the Teaching of Art and Crafts
in English Schools
by
GORDON SUTTON, A.T.D., M.Ed., Ph.D.
Principal Lecturer in Art and Crafts
City of Leicester College of Education
PERGAMON PRESS
OXFORD · LONDON · EDINBURGH · NEW YORK
TORONTO · SYDNEY · PARIS · BRAUNSCHWEIG
Pergamon Press Ltd., Headington Hill Hall, Oxford
4 & 5 Fitzroy Square, London W.l
Pergamon Press (Scotland) Ltd., 2 & 3 Teviot Place, Edinburgh 1
Pergamon Press Inc., 44-01 21st Street, Long Island City, New York 11101
Pergamon of Canada, Ltd., 6 Adelaide Street East, Toronto, Ontario
Pergamon Press (Aust.) Pty. Ltd., 20-22 Margaret Street, Sydney, N.S.W.
Pergamon Press S.A.R.L., 24 rue des Ecoles, Paris 5e
Vie weg & Sohn GmbH, Burgplatz 1, Braunschweig
Copyright © 1967
Pergamon Press Ltd.
First edition 1967
Library of Congress Catalog Card No. 67-19822
PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN BY A. WHEATON AND CO. LTD., EXETER
3181/67
List of Illustrations
PLATE
1. ERASMUS at the age of 57, by Hans Holbein. Longford Castle. Face p. 3
2. BALDASSARE CASTIGLIONE, by Raphael. Louvre. Face p. 5
3. Cizek, Children s Coloured Paper Work. Face p. 264
FIGURE PAGE
la. Portion of a page from Adagiorum Opus D. Erasmi Roterdami, printed by
Johannes Froben, Basle, 1526 4
lb. Capital letter, "Chofes requifes a bien faire lettres Attiques", from 4
Tory's Champfleury, Paris, 1529
2. Introduction, from Orbis Pictus, by Comenius, 1658 16
3. The Shoemaker, from Orbis Pictus, by Comenius, 1658 17
4. The Carpenter, from Orbis Pictus, by Comenius, 1658 18
5. "Inventive" drawing. A development of Buss's "alphabet of form", 31
probably Krüsi's own invention. (From Pestalozzi, by Hermann Kriisi,
1875)
6. Froebel Drawing Exercises from Education of Man, translator's Synopsis 39
(W. N. Hailman)
7a. Patterns suggested from Froebei's Third "Gift", a cube divided into 43
eight smaller ones (2x2x2)
7b. Patterns suggested from Froebei's Fifth "Gift", a cube divided into 44
twenty-seven smaller ones (3X3X3). From Froebei's Pedagogics of
the Kindergarten (trans. J. Jarvis)
8. Copies from Dyce's Drawing Book, 1842 55
9. Copies from Dyce's Drawing Book, 1842 56
10. Oxford University Delegacy for Local Examinations. Senior Papers, 97
1858. Drawing in Perspective. (The angle of 60 degrees and a scale were
given)
11. Oxford University Delegacy for Local Examinations. Junior Papers, 102
1895. Freehand Drawing, \\ hours. The size should be slightly increased.
12. Oxford University Delegacy for Local Examinations. Senior Papers, 103
1895. Freehand Drawing, \\ hours. The size should be slightly increased.
13. Science and Art Department First and Second Grade Freehand Drawing 108
Exercises (Figs. 13-16). From the Department's Directory, 1875.
14a. Second Grade Freehand Drawing. From the Department's Directory, 109
1875
14b. Second Grade Freehand Drawing. From the Department's Directory, 110
1878
15. First Grade Model Drawing. From the Department's Directory, 1870 111
List of Illustrations
Second Grade Model Drawing. From the Department's Directory, 1870 112
Science and Art Department 119
Syllabus of Drawing in Elementary Schools.
From the Department's Report, Appendix A, 1886. (Figs. 17-23.)
STANDARDS I and II
Drawing Freehand and with the ruler lines, angles, etc. Children in
Standard I should draw on slates, those in Standard II on paper, drawing
the figures freehand and afterwards with the ruler.
STANDARD III 120
(a) Freehand drawing of regular forms and curved figures from the flat.
(b) Simple geometrical figures with rulers.
(Selection from examples illustrated.)
STANDARD IV 121
Freehand drawing from the flat and from simple rectangular and circular
models.
(Selection from examples illustrated.)
STANDARD V 122
The same as Standard IV with the addition of easy common objects.
Freehand drawings should be enlarged or reduced from the example.
(Selection from the examples illustrated.)
STANDARD VI 123
The same as Standard V but of greater difficulty.
(Selection from the examples illustrated.)
STANDARD VII 124
Drawing any common objects and casts of ornament in light and shade.
STANDARD VII (cont.) 126
Elementary Art Teaching, by E. R. Taylor, 1890. (Figs. 24-29.) 129
STANDARD II
STANDARD II 130
Curved patterns.
STANDARD III 131
Ornament and proportion.
STANDARD IV—Course A 132
STANDARD V—Course B
STANDARDS VI and VII 134
Direct Brushwork.
Modelling. 136
Science and Art Department. Alternative Illustrated Syllabus of Instruc- 138
tion in Drawing in Elementary Schools, 1895. (Figs. 30-41.)
STANDARDS I-II
"The motion round and round should be repeated until the hand can
follow in the same track. Different directions, different sizes, in twos,
threes, fours, in line or mass. These combinations are the beginnings of
Design."
STANDARDS I-II (cont.) 140
(Reduced in scale.)
"The egg shape should now be drawn in the same manner as the ellipse.
List of Illustrations
IX
These combinations may be made to suggest common or natural forms.
Suggestions of decorative objects by combinations of straight-line
forms."
32. STANDARDS I-II (cont.) 141
"Suggestions of common objects by combinations of straight-line
forms. Elementary brushwork forms (made by a single touch without
moving the brush on the paper).
33. STANDARD III 142
"Further combinations of elliptic and ovoid forms."
34. STANDARD III (cont.) 143
"Combinations of half-ellipses into decorative forms, and decorative
forms suggested by the Geometrical work of the Standard. Suggestions
of Natural forms by combinations of quadrants, etc."
35. STANDARD III (cont.) 144
Further "Natural forms" and "Ovate Brushwork forms and their com­
binations at different angles''.
36. STANDARD IV 145
"Combinations of quadrants of ellipse and oval."
37. STANDARD IV (cont.) 146
"Suggestions of Forms of natural and other common objects by
combinations of previous forms. Further combinations of brush
forms."
38. STANDARD V 147
"Freehand combinations of circles with previous forms and elements.
Suggested simple examples to be copied from the flat or from the object.
Decorative forms on Geometric basis with brush forms introduced."
39. STANDARD V (cont.) 148
"Exercises on the spiral. Further examples to be copied from the flat
or from the object."
40. STANDARD V (cont.) 149
"Further varieties of brush forms."
41. STANDARDS VI and VII 150
"Further variety of outlines. More complex combinations of previous
forms."
42. Combinations of Elementary Line drawn with pencil 151
From Special Report, Education Dept., 1896.
43. Combinations of Ovals and Elementary Lines in Water-colour (lower). 152
White chalk and Brown Paper Exercises with whole forms.
An additional Line with Darker Chalk added voluntarily (lower).
From Special Report, Education Dept., 1896.
44. Work on the "Alternative Syllabus" from a Bermondsey school 155
Standard II, age 8 (upper). Standard III, age 11 (lower).
45. Work on the "Alternative Syllabus" from a Bermondsey school 156
Standard IV, age 12.
46. Number of Children taught Drawing in Schools for the Poor (re- 167
named "Public Elementary Schools" 1872). Figures derived from
Annual Reports of the Science and Art Dept.
ί List of Illustrations
47. Percentages of Children taught Drawing in Elementary Schools. De- 168
rived from figures of children in average attendance quoted in Annual
Reports of the Education Dept., and numbers of children taught Draw­
ing given in Science and Art Dept. Annual Reports.
48. "Graduated Course of Drawing for Infants", by Miss C. H. Fowler, 169
H.M., Page Grove Board School, Tottenham. (Figs. 48-52.)
1st Series. On slates only for the Babies' Class.
49. 2nd Series. Children 5-6 170
50. Original designs by children 5 and 6 171
51. 4th Series. Introduction of curves 171
52. Pattern by a child of 7 in Standard 1 172
53. Pattern by Froebel College student, ca. 1900 173
54. Pricked pattern by Froebel College student, ca. 1900 174
55. Sloyd knife. Advertisement in the Journal of Education, 1892 184
56. Numbers of children in Elementary Schools given Manual Instruction 187
From figures in Science and Art Dept., Annual Reports.
57. Circular on Primary Drawing, Board of Education, 1901. (Figs. 57-61.) 206
I. Graduated and Progressive Method, Firm or Flexible Point.
58. II and III. Practice with Firm and Flexible Point 207
59. IV and VI. Firm Point Practice 208
60. IX and X. Firm and Flexible Point Practice in Lettering. Firm Point Practice 209
(more advanced), natural and common objects.
61. XII. Analysis and Composition 210
62. Percentages of Boys and Girls choosing to draw Human Beings 225
From Ballard's study of 20,000 memory drawings by London Elementary
School children, 1912.
63. From Pädagogisches Skizzenbuch, by Paul Klee, 1925 282
64. From Punkt und Linie zur Fläche, by W. Kandinsky, 1926. "Vorsichge- 283
hende Auflösung." (Progressive disintegration.)
65. From Punkt und Linie zur Fläche, by W. Kandinsky, 1926. "Einfacher 284
und einheitlicher Komplex einiger Freier." (Simple free-line compo­
sition.)
Foreword
THIS book is a revision of a Ph.D. thesis presented to the University of Leicester.
Wherever possible the facts have been derived from original sources, and I
must pay tribute to those who have assisted in the search for material. In
particular I would like to thank the staffs of the libraries in the Victoria and
Albert Museum, the British Museum, the Ministry of Education, and the
School of Education, Leicester University.
Many of the illustrations had to be traced and redrawn. These I have done
with what skill and patience I could command. Figures 13-16, 22 and 23 are
the same size as the originals. The rest are reduced by about one third.
The owners of publishing rights have been most generous in their per­
missions to quote, and the origins of the extracts will be found in the list of
references. I must also thank Lord Radnor for permission to reproduce the
superb Holbein portrait of Erasmus from the Longford Castle collection.
Thanks are also due to Rank Xerox for assistance in reproducing Figs. 1-4.
A problem central to the whole question of art education in the schools is the
training of the teachers. If this record of the historical background helps to
clarify the issues today, it will have been effort well spent.
G.S.
Introduction
ANY account of the teaching of a particular subject in English schools must of
necessity be but a part of the larger history of the education of English children.
The teaching of Art came comparatively late—a fact demanding some explana­
tion, and only to be understood against the background from which it eventually
appeared.
The useful point at which to begin might be the arrival of Augustine in
A.D. 597. Leach has observed that he came with the "Latin service-book in one
hand, and the Latin grammar in the other". In due time "the Grammar School
became in theory, as it often was in fact, the vestibule of the Church". <x> The
essential Latin was to prove the chief concern of the Grammar Schools of
England for many centuries. At Canterbury, a school (later re-founded as
King's School by Henry VIII) was endowed by Ethelbert—possibly in 598—and
may thus be our oldest Grammar School. It was to be the prototype of the
many such schools which educated the future priest, clerk, lawyer, and
statesman.
In the eighth century Alcuin recorded the subjects taught at the school of the
City of York by his "beloved master" Ethelbert (or Albert), later Archbishop of
York: the trivium—grammar, rhetoric, logic; the quadrivium—arithmetic,
geometry, music, astronomy (constituting the seven "liberal arts") plus law,
and "above all" divinity. An encyclopaedian task undertaken by a single master,
and surely one which few schoolmasters then or since could emulate. The
youths were boarders, drawn from the city and diocese. Alcuin succeeded to the
mastership, until called to a like post at the Frankish court of Charlemagne in
A.D. 782. The conception of the Seven Liberal Arts "is first found explicitly
stated in the lost treatise of Varro (116-27 B.C.) entitled Disciplinarum Libri
IX ... to which he added medicine and architecture".<2) That a visual art
should be thus early linked with the Seven is of more than passing interest.
History can show but uncertain progress towards the recognition of the visual
arts in liberal education.
Later, Grammar Schoolmaster and Song Schoolmaster became separate
functions, the latter concerned with elementary work, "to teach the petties",
reading and singing. Such schoolmasters were predominantly secular clergy,
not monks. Aelfric, Abbot of Eynsham, gives a vivid picture of a Saxon School
in his "Colloquy" (ca. A.D. 995): "We boys ask you, master, to teach us to speak
Latin correctly, as we are unlearned and speak corruptly." The school was a lay,
1
2 Introduction
not monastic, city school, and was not restricted to freemen. In the eleventh and
twelfth centuries, all cathedral and collegiate churches kept schools and were the
chief, if not the only, source of "grammar" teaching. Winchester College was
founded in 1382 to supply scholars for Wykeham's New College, Oxford. It
provided for seventy poor and needy boys, and was the first self-governing
school founded independently of collegiate church or university college. The
"poor and needy" were not necessarily of the "working class", but were often
sons of good families—county, farmers, burgesses, who would send their boys
to Grammar Schools, but might not afford to send them on to University.
Henry VI founded Eton College in 1440 with a similar intention for "25 poor
and needy scholars to learn grammar there". It was to be a free school open to
the nation.
The full achievement of mediaeval art, in architecture, sculpture, painting
and the many artistic crafts, was no direct concern of the schools—be they
cathedral, monastic, hospital, college, chantry, or even guild. Such matters
were "mechanical arts", to be looked after by the appropriate craft guilds,
which would provide for the training of boy apprentices, and though a guild
might maintain a school, there seems no evidence that its craft skills were any
interest of the school. The case of girls is somewhat different. While the whole
concept of the Grammar School was exclusively male, there were a vast
number of nuns in England from the earliest times to the dissolution of the
monasteries, and numerous nunnery schools were maintained which included
boarders from good families as well as novices. They were taught to sing, read
both English and Latin, write, sew, and weave. Day schools would also seem
to have been conducted at some nunneries, e.g. the Convent of St. Helen,
Bishopsgate, and St. Mary's Kilburn. English embroidery was sought through­
out Europe in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. The convents, the great
secular houses, the lay craft shops with their 7-year apprenticeship all contributed
to the unrivalled reputation achieved by the work which became known as
opus anglicanum. There can be small doubt that this high standard influenced the
teaching of elementary needlework to the pupils in convent schools. The divine
Fuller, who died in 1661, writes: "They were good she schools, wherein the
girls and maids of the neighbourhood were taught to read and to work. . . .<4>
The domestic arts of the needle and fabrics were thus given a place alongside
book learning—opus anglicanum wedded to rudimenta grammatical Even Crom­
well's Commissioners in 1557 admitted that the girls were "right virtuously
brought upp".<3>
The broad educational effect of mediaeval art cannot be justly estimated—
though perhaps the more frequently over-estimated—but this wealth of expres­
sion was independent of the concept of "school". Latin was the prime "liberal"
art, serving not only Church, but State. As letters patent to William Byngham
put it in 1439: "... necessary in dealing with law and other difficult matters of
state and also the means of mutual communication and conversation between