Artificial muscles : applications of advanced polymeric nanocomposites

409 Pages·2022·37.236 MB·English

by  Mohsen Shahinpoor

Artificial Muscles

Artificial Muscles
Applications of Advanced Polymeric
Nanocomposites
Second Edition
Mohsen Shahinpoor
Second edition published 2022
by CRC Press
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First edition published by CRC Press 2007
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Shahinpoor, Mohsen, author.
Title: Artificial muscles : applications of advanced polymeric
nanocomposites / Mohsen Shahinpoor, Department of Mechanical
Engineering, College of Engineering, Graduate School of Biomedical
Science and Engineering, University of Maine, Maine, USA.
Description: Second edition. | Boca Raton : CRC Press, 2022. | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2021021421 | ISBN 9780367857905 (hbk) | ISBN
9781032107646 (pbk) | ISBN 9781003015239 (ebk)
Subjects: LCSH: Nanotechnology. | Muscles. | Artificial organs. |
Biomimetic polymers. | MESH: Polymers--chemistry. | Artificial Organs. |
Biomimetic Materials. | Electrophysiology--methods. |
Muscles--physiology. | Nanostructures.
Classification: LCC TP248.25.N35 S53 2022 | DDC 660.6--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021021421
ISBN: 978-0-367-85790-5 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-032-10764-6 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-01523-9 (ebk)
DOI: 10.1201/9781003015239
Typeset in Times LT Std
by KnowledgeWorks Global Ltd.
Contents
List of Figures ...................................................................................................................................xi
List of Tables .................................................................................................................................xxix
Acronyms ......................................................................................................................................xxxi
Symbols ......................................................................................................................................xxxiii
About the Author .......................................................................................................................xxxvii
Prologue ......................................................................................................................................xxxix
Chapter 1 Introduction to Ionic Polymers, Ionic Gels and Stimuli-Responsive Materials
and Artificial Muscles ..................................................................................................1
1.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................1
1.2 A Brief History of Electroactive Polymers (EAPs) and Artificial/
Synthetic Muscles .............................................................................................1
1.2.1 Electrically Conductive and Photonic Polymers ..................................2
1.2.2 Magnetically Activated Polymer Gels and Polymers ..........................2
1.2.3 Electronic EAPs/Ferroelectric Polymers .............................................3
1.2.4 Electrets and Piezoelectric Polymers ...................................................3
1.2.5 Dielectric Elastomer EAPs ..................................................................3
1.2.6 Liquid Crystal Elastomer (LCE) Materials .........................................4
1.2.7 Ionic EAPs/Ionic Polymer Gels (IPGs) ...............................................4
1.2.8 Nonionic Polymer Gels/EAPs .............................................................5
1.2.9 Ionic Polymer-Metal Composites (IPMCs) ..........................................5
1.2.10 Conductive Polymers (CPs) or Synthetic Metals .................................5
1.2.11 Shape-memory Alloys (SMAs) and Shape-memory
Polymers (SMPs) ..................................................................................6
1.2.12 Metal Hydride Artificial Muscle Systems ...........................................6
1.2.13 Electrorheological Fluids (ERFs) Smart Materials .............................7
1.2.14 Magnetorheological Fluids (MRFs) Smart Materials ..........................7
1.2.15 Magnetic Shape Memory (MSM) Smart Materials .............................8
1.2.16 Giant Magnetostrictive Materials (GMMs) .........................................8
1.2.17 Fibrous Ionic Polyacrylonitrile Gel (PAN, PANG) as
Artificial Muscles ................................................................................8
1.2.18 Piezoresistive Materials as Smart Sensors ...........................................9
1.2.19 Electrostrictive Materials as Smart Actuators and Sensors .................9
1.2.20 Hydrogels and Nanogels as Smart Actuators and Sensors ..................9
1.2.21 New Stimuli-responsive Smart Materials Actuators and Sensors .....10
1.2.21.1 Giant Magnetoresistive (GMR) Materials ..........................10
1.2.21.2 Mechanochromic Smart Materials and Mechanical
Metamaterials .....................................................................10
1.2.21.3 Smart Nanogels for Biomedical Applications ....................10
1.2.21.4 Janus Particles as Smart Materials .....................................11
1.3 A Brief History of Electromotive Polymers ....................................................12
1.3.1 Contraction Behavior .........................................................................19
1.3.2 Mechanisms .......................................................................................19
1.4 Role of Microparticles in Contraction of Gels ................................................19
v
vi Contents
Chapter 2 Fundamentals of Ionic Polymer-Metal Composites (IPMCs)
and Nanocomposites (IPMNCs) ................................................................................23
2.1 Introduction .....................................................................................................23
2.2 Performance Characteristics ...........................................................................31
2.2.1 Mechanical Performance ...................................................................31
2.2.2 Electrical Performance ......................................................................34
2.2.3 Improved Force Performance of IPMCs ............................................38
2.2.4 A View from Linear Irreversible Thermodynamics ..........................42
2.2.5 Thermodynamic Efficiency ...............................................................44
2.2.6 Cryogenic Properties of IPMNC .......................................................46
2.2.7 Internal and External Circulatory Properties of IPMCs ....................46
2.2.8 Near-D.C. Mechanical Sensing, Transduction and Energy-
Harvesting Capabilities of IPMCs in Flexing Bending and
Compression Modes ...........................................................................51
2.3 Additional Reports on Force Optimization ....................................................53
2.3.1 Recent Reports and Discoveries on IPMCs .......................................54
2.4 Electric Deformation Memory Effects, Magnetic IPMNCs,
and Self-Oscillatory Phenomena in Ionic Polymers .......................................57
Chapter 3 Ionic Polymer-Metal Nanocomposites: (IPMCs and IPMNCs)
Manufacturing Techniques ........................................................................................61
3.1 Introduction .....................................................................................................61
3.2 IPMNC Base Materials ...................................................................................61
3.2.1 In General ..........................................................................................61
3.2.2 Water Structure within the IPMNC Base Materials ..........................65
3.3 Manufacturing Techniques .............................................................................68
3.3.1 In General ..........................................................................................68
3.3.2 IPMNC and IPCNC Manufacturing Recipe ......................................71
3.3.3 IPMNC Force Optimization ..............................................................73
3.3.4 Effects of Different Cations ...............................................................79
3.3.5 Electrode Particle Control .................................................................83
3.3.6 Additional Results on Stretched IPMNCs to Enhance Force
Generation and Other Physical Properties .........................................88
3.3.6.1 Platinum-Palladium – New Phenomenon ..........................95
3.3.7 Effective Surface Electrodes ..............................................................96
3.3.8 An Economic Approach – Physical Metal Loading ........................103
3.3.9 Scaling .............................................................................................107
3.3.10 Technique of Making Heterogeneous IPMNC Composites ............112
Chapter 4 Ionic Polyacrylonitrile (PAN) Fibrous Artificial Muscles/Nanomuscles ................115
4.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................115
4.2 PAN Fabrication ............................................................................................115
4.3 PAN Characterization ...................................................................................117
4.3.1 Isotonic Characterization .................................................................118
4.3.2 Isoionic Test .....................................................................................119
4.3.3 PAN Synthetic Muscles’ Capability Measurements ........................119
4.3.3.1 SEM Studies .....................................................................119
4.3.4 Effects of Different Cations .............................................................127
4.3.5 Electric Activation of PAN Fibers ...................................................128
4.3.6 Additional Results ............................................................................129
Contents vii
4.3.7 Additional Experimental Results .....................................................130
4.3.7.1 Results ..............................................................................131
4.3.8 PAN Actuator System Design and Fabrication ................................134
4.3.9 PAN Performance Testing in an Acidic Environment .....................134
4.3.9.1 Procedures ........................................................................135
4.3.9.2 Results ..............................................................................135
4.3.10 PAN Film Casting Experiment ........................................................137
4.3.11 PAN Actuator System Design and Fabrication ................................138
4.3.12 PAN Casting Experiment .................................................................139
4.3.13 Further PAN Actuator System Design and Fabrication ...................140
4.4 PAN pH Meters .............................................................................................142
4.4.1 Skeletal Muscles Made with Fibrous PAN Artificial Muscles ........143
4.5 Electroactive PAN Muscles ...........................................................................144
4.6 Electrochemomechanical Actuation in Conductive Polyacrylonitrile
(C-PAN) Fibers and Nanofibers ....................................................................147
4.6.1 Introduction ......................................................................................147
4.6.2 Preparation of Ionically Active PAN ...............................................149
4.6.3 Direct Metal Deposition Technique .................................................152
4.6.4 Graphite and Gold Fiber Electrode Woven Into PAN Muscle
as an Adjunct Electrode ...................................................................153
4.6.5 Toward Nanoscale Artificial Muscles and Motors ..........................154
4.6.6 Experiment .......................................................................................158
4.6.7 Nanofiber Electrospinning in General .............................................160
4.6.8 Fabrication of a PAN Actuator System ............................................162
4.6.9 Contraction and Elongation Mechanism ..........................................163
4.6.10 Mathematical Modeling of Contraction and Elongation
of C-PAN Fibers ..............................................................................164
4.6.10.1 Basic Modeling ..............................................................164
4.6.10.2 Modeling .......................................................................165
4.6.10.3 More Detailed Mathematical Modeling PAN Fiber
Contraction/Expansion ..................................................166
4.6.10.4 PAN Actuator System Design and Fabrication .............167
4.6.10.5 Further Modeling ..........................................................169
4.6.10.6 PAN Actuator Fabrication .............................................171
4.6.10.7 Additional Modeling .....................................................173
4.6.10.8 Small-scale PAN Actuator Fabrication .........................174
4.6.10.9 Small-scale PAN Actuator Fabrication and Testing ......176
4.6.10.10 PAN Actuator System Testing .......................................176
4.6.11 Electrocapillary Transport Modeling ..............................................183
4.6.12 Other Aspects of PAN Muscle Behavior .........................................187
4.6.13 Force Generation with pH Difference .............................................189
4.6.13.1 Mechanical Property of Single PAN Fiber ......................194
4.6.14 Effects of Electrode Deterioration on Force Generation .................194
4.7 Five-Fingered Hand Design and Fabrication Using PAN Fiber
Bundle Muscles .............................................................................................196
4.7.1 Fabrication of Five-fingered Hand Equipped with Fiber
Bundle PAN Muscles .......................................................................198
4.7.2 Additional Mechanical Property Measurement
of Single PAN Fiber .........................................................................202
4.8 Micro-PAN Fiber Observation ......................................................................203
4.9 Conclusions ...................................................................................................204
viii Contents
Chapter 5 PAMPS Ionic Polymeric Artificial Muscles ............................................................205
5.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................205
5.2 PAMPS Gels .................................................................................................206
5.3 Gel Preparation .............................................................................................207
5.4 PAMPS Gel Application ...............................................................................207
5.4.1 Adaptive Optical Lenses ..................................................................208
5.4.2 Theoretical Model ............................................................................208
5.4.3 Electrically Controllable Ionic Polymeric Gels as Adaptive
Optical Lenses .................................................................................212
5.4.4 Experimental Results: PAMPS ........................................................212
5.5 Electroactive PAMPS Gel Robotic Structures ..............................................214
5.6 Engineering Strength Considerations on PAMPS Ionic Gels .......................214
5.7 Ionic Gel Robotics .........................................................................................216
5.8 Results and Conclusions ................................................................................216
Chapter 6 Modeling and Simulation of IPMCs as Distributed Soft Biomimetic
Nanosensors, Nanoactuators, Nanotransducers and Artificial Muscles ..................217
6.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................217
6.2 Continuum Electrodynamics of Ionic Polymeric Gels’ Swelling
and Deswelling ..............................................................................................219
6.2.1 Basic Formulation ............................................................................219
6.2.2 Computer Simulation of Symmetric Swelling and Contraction
of Polyelectrolyte Gels .....................................................................222
6.2.3 Gel Contraction/Shrinkage Example Based on the
Continuum-Diffusion Model ...........................................................223
6.3 Continuum-Diffusion Electromechanical Model for Asymmetric
Bending of Ionic Polymeric Gels ..................................................................226
6.3.1 Analytical Modeling ........................................................................226
6.4 Continuum Microelectromechanical Models ...............................................239
6.4.1 Theoretical Modeling ......................................................................239
6.4.2 Numerical Simulation ......................................................................241
6.5 Microelectromechanical Modeling of Asymmetric Deformation
of Ionic Gels ..................................................................................................244
6.6 Time-Dependent Phenomenological Model .................................................250
6.6.1 Two-Component Transport Model ..................................................250
6.6.2 Linear Irreversible Thermodynamic Modeling ...............................253
6.6.2.1 Introduction ......................................................................253
6.6.2.2 Steady-State Solutions ......................................................254
6.6.3 Expanded Ion Transport Modeling for Complex
Multicomponent and Multicationic Systems
and Ionic Networks ...................................................................258
6.6.4 Equivalent Circuit Modeling ...........................................................263
6.7 Conclusions ...................................................................................................264
Chapter 7 Sensing, Transduction, Feedback Control and Robotic Applications
of Polymeric Artificial Muscles ...............................................................................265
7.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................265
7.2 Sensing Capabilities of IPMCs .....................................................................265
7.2.1 Basics of Sensing and Transduction of IPMCs ................................265
Contents ix
7.2.2 Electrical Properties ........................................................................267
7.2.3 Experiment and Discussion .............................................................271
7.3 Evaluation of IPMCs for Use as Near-D.C. Electromechanical Sensors ......271
7.3.1 Introduction ......................................................................................271
7.3.2 Background of Near DC Sensing .....................................................274
7.3.3 Experiment Setup ............................................................................274
7.3.4 Experiment Results ..........................................................................275
7.3.5 Discussion and Conclusions .............................................................278
7.3.6 Advances in Sensing and Transduction ...........................................278
7.4 Simulation and Control of Ionoelastic Beam Dynamic Deflection Model ...........280
7.4.1 Introduction to Modeling of Elastic Beams .....................................280
7.4.2 Static Deflection ...............................................................................280
7.4.3 Dynamic Case ..................................................................................283
7.4.4 Variable Moments ............................................................................285
7.4.4.1 Moment Modification .......................................................286
7.4.4.2 Extension ..........................................................................287
7.4.4.3 Validation .........................................................................287
7.4.5 Summary ..........................................................................................288
7.4.6 Feedback Control in Bending Response of IPMNC Actuators .......288
7.4.7 Results ..............................................................................................289
7.5 Conclusions ...................................................................................................291
Chapter 8 Conductive or Ion-Conjugated Polymers as Artificial Muscles ...............................293
8.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................293
8.2 Deformation of Conducting or Conjugated Polymers ...................................294
Chapter 9 Engineering, Industrial and Medical Applications of Ionic
Polymer–Metal Nanocomposites .............................................................................299
9.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................299
9.2 Engineering and Industrial Applications ......................................................299
9.2.1 Mechanical Grippers .......................................................................299
9.2.2 Three-Dimensional Actuator ...........................................................300
9.2.3 Robotic Swimming Structure ..........................................................301
9.2.4 Biomimetic Noiseless Swimming Robotic Fish ..............................303
9.2.5 Linear Actuators ..............................................................................307
9.2.6 IPMNC Contractile Serpentine and Slithering Configurations .......308
9.2.7 Metering Valves ...............................................................................312
9.2.8 Diaphragm Pumps Using Flexing IPMNC Strips
and Diaphragms ...........................................................................313
9.2.8.1 Diaphragm Pump Designs ...............................................314
9.2.8.2 Exoskeleton Human Joint Power Augmentation
(ESHPA) ...........................................................................316
9.2.9 Microelectromechanical Systems ....................................................318
9.2.10 Electromechanical Relay Switches ..................................................322
9.2.11 Continuous Variable Aperture Mirrors and Antenna Dishes ..........322
9.2.12 Slithering Device .............................................................................323
9.2.13 Parts Orientation/Feeding ...............................................................323
9.2.14 Musical Instruments ........................................................................323
9.2.15 Flat Keyboards, Data Attire and Braille Alphabet ..........................323