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Artificial Intelligence and Problem Solving PDF

372 Pages·2016·7.39 MB·English
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Artificial Intelligence and Problem Solving License, Disclaimer Of Liability, And Limited Warranty By purchasing or using this book and disc (the “Work”), you agree that this license grants permission to use the contents contained herein, including the disc, but does not give you the right of ownership to any of the textual content in the book / disc or ownership to any of the informa- tion or products contained in it. This license does not permit uploading of the Work onto the Internet or on a network (of any kind) without the written consent of the Publisher. Duplication or dissemination of any text, code, simulations, images, etc. contained herein is limited to and subject to licensing terms for the respective products, and permission must be obtained from the Publisher or the owner of the content, etc., in order to reproduce or network any portion of the textual material (in any media) that is contained in the Work. Mercury Learning and Information (“MLI” or “the Publisher”) and anyone involved in the creation, writing, or production of the com- panion disc, accompanying algorithms, code, or computer programs (“the software”), and any accompanying Web site or software of the Work, can- not and do not warrant the performance or results that might be obtained by using the contents of the Work. The author, developers, and the Pub- lisher have used their best efforts to insure the accuracy and functionality of the textual material and/or programs contained in this package; we, however, make no warranty of any kind, express or implied, regarding the performance of these contents or programs. The Work is sold “as is” without warranty (except for defective materials used in manufacturing the book or due to faulty workmanship). The author, developers, and the publisher of any accompanying content, and anyone involved in the composition, production, and manufacturing of this work will not be liable for damages of any kind arising out of the use of (or the inability to use) the algorithms, source code, computer programs, or textual material contained in this publication. This includes, but is not limited to, loss of revenue or profit, or other incidental, physi- cal, or consequential damages arising out of the use of this Work. Companion files for this title are also available for downloading from the publisher by writing to [email protected]. The sole remedy in the event of a claim of any kind is expressly limited to replacement of the book and/or disc, and only at the discretion of the Publisher. The use of “implied warranty” and certain “exclusions” vary from state to state, and might not apply to the purchaser of this product. Artificial Intelligence and Problem Solving Dr. Danny Kopec Christopher Pileggi David Ungar Shweta Shetty Mercury Learning and Information Dulles, Virginia Boston, Massachusetts New Delhi Copyright ©2017 by Mercury Learning and Information LLC. All rights reserved. Portions of this book appeared in Artificial Intelligence Problems and Their Solutions (978-1-938549-83-0). ©Copyright 2014. Mercury Learning and Information LLC. This publication, portions of it, or any accompanying software may not be reproduced in any way, stored in a retrieval system of any type, or transmitted by any means, media, electronic display or mechanical display, including, but not limited to, photocopy, recording, Internet postings, or scanning, without prior permission in writing from the publisher. Publisher: David Pallai Mercury Learning and Information 22841 Quicksilver Drive Dulles, VA 20166 [email protected] www.merclearning.com 1-800-232-0223 D. Kopec, C. Pileggi, D. Ungar, & S. Shetty. Artificial Intelligence and Problem Solving. ISBN: 978-1-944534-58-5 The publisher recognizes and respects all marks used by companies, manufacturers, and developers as a means to distinguish their products. All brand names and product names mentioned in this book are trademarks or service marks of their respective companies. Any omission or misuse (of any kind) of service marks or trademarks, etc. is not an attempt to infringe on the property of others. Library of Congress Control Number: 2016940534 161718321 Printed in the United States of America This book is printed on acid-free paper. Our titles are available for adoption, license, or bulk purchase by institutions, corporations, etc. For additional information, please contact the Customer Service Dept. at 800-232-0223(toll free). The companion files for this title are also available for downloading via FTP by writing to the publisher at [email protected]. All of our titles are available in digital format at authorcloudware.com and other digital vendors. The sole obligation of Mercury Learning and Information to the purchaser is to replace the book or disc, based on defective materials or faulty workmanship, but not based on the operation or functionality of the product. C ontents Preface ������������������������������������������������������������������������������xiii List of Figures and Tables ��������������������������������������������������xv Chapter 1: Introduction ���������������������������������������������1 1.1 Goals and Purpose of This Book .........................................1 1.2 Background and Previous Work ..........................................4 1.3 Contributions of This Book .................................................5 1.4 References............................................................................5 Part I: Problem Solving and Traditional Artificial Intelligence Problems ������������������������������������������������7 Chapter 2: Problem Solving ���������������������������������������9 2.1 Polya’s Five Steps for Problem Solving ...............................9 2.2 Problem-Solving Techniques.............................................14 2.2.1 Heuristics ................................................................22 2.2.2 Additional Heuristics for Problem Solving ...........24 2.3 The Human Window .........................................................25 2.4 Human Window Criteria and Ranking of Solutions .........28 2.5 Classification ......................................................................31 2.6 References..........................................................................33 vi • Artificial Intelligence and Problem Solving Chapter 3: The Missionaries and Cannibals Problem ���������������������������������������������������35 3.1 Background ........................................................................35 3.2 Choosing an Appropriate Representation ........................37 3.3 Solution ..............................................................................40 3.4 Human Problem Solving ...................................................42 3.5 Human Window Analysis of Solutions ..............................47 3.5.1 The Most Human Window–Compatible Solution ...................................................................48 3.5.2 The Least Human Window–Compatible Solution ...................................................................50 3.6 Best Machine Solution ......................................................52 3.7 Related Problems ...............................................................53 3.8 Playable Program ...............................................................54 3.9 References..........................................................................55 Chapter 4: The 12 Coins Problem ���������������������������57 4.1 Background ........................................................................57 4.2 Solving a Smaller Problem ................................................58 4.3 Solution ..............................................................................62 4.4 Human Problem Solving ...................................................68 4.5 Human Window Analysis of Solutions ..............................69 4.5.1 The Most Human Window–Compatible Solution ...................................................................71 4.5.2 The Least Human Window–Compatible Solution ...................................................................71 4.6 Best Machine Solution ......................................................74 4.7 Playable Program ...............................................................75 4.8 References..........................................................................75 Chapter 5: Cryptarithms ������������������������������������������77 5.1 Background ........................................................................77 5.2 Problem-Solving Techniques.............................................78 5.3 Solution ..............................................................................79 5.4 Human Problem Solving ...................................................91 5.5 Human Window Analysis of Solutions ..............................92 5.5.1 The Most Human Window–Compatible Solution ...................................................................94 Contents • vii 5.5.2 The Least Human Window–Compatible Solution ...................................................................95 5.6 Best Machine Solution ......................................................96 5.7 Related Problems ...............................................................97 5.8 Playable Program ...............................................................98 5.9 References........................................................................100 Chapter 6: The Red Donkey Puzzle ����������������������101 6.1 Background ......................................................................101 6.2 Solution ............................................................................103 6.2.1 Bidirectional Search .............................................106 6.3 Human Problem Solving .................................................107 6.4 Human Window Analysis of Solutions ............................108 6.4.1 The Most Human Window–Compatible Solution .................................................................109 6.4.2 The Least Human Window–Compatible Solution .................................................................112 6.5 Best Machine Solution ....................................................114 6.6 Related Problems .............................................................115 6.7 Playable Program .............................................................115 6.8 References........................................................................116 Chapter 7: The 15 Puzzle ���������������������������������������117 7.1 Background ......................................................................117 7.2 Problem-Solving Techniques...........................................118 7.3 Solution ............................................................................119 7.3.1 Solving the First Row ...........................................120 7.3.2 The Corner Technique.........................................124 7.3.3 Solving the Second Row ......................................126 7.3.4 Solving the Third Row .........................................127 7.3.5 Solving the Fourth Row .......................................130 7.4 Human Window Analysis of Solutions ............................132 7.4.1 The Most Human Window–Compatible Solution .................................................................134 7.4.2 The Least Human Window–Compatible Solution .................................................................134 7.5 Best Machine Solution ....................................................136 7.6 Related Problems .............................................................138 7.7 Playable Program .............................................................139 7.8 References........................................................................139 viii • Artificial Intelligence and Problem Solving Chapter 8: The Knight’s Tour Problem �����������������141 8.1 Background ......................................................................141 8.2 Problem-Solving Techniques...........................................142 8.3 Solution ............................................................................143 8.4 Human Problem Solving .................................................152 8.5 Human Window Analysis of Solutions ............................152 8.5.1 The Most Human Window–Compatible Solution .................................................................155 8.5.2 The Least Human Window–Compatible Solution .................................................................156 8.6 Best Machine Solution ....................................................158 8.7 Related Problems .............................................................160 8.8 Playable Program .............................................................160 8.9 References........................................................................161 Chapter 9: Mastermind ������������������������������������������163 9.1 Background ......................................................................163 9.2 Problem-Solving Techniques...........................................164 9.3 Solution ............................................................................165 9.3.1 Example 1 .............................................................166 9.3.2 Example 2 .............................................................168 9.3.3 Example 3 .............................................................170 9.3.4 Example 4 .............................................................173 9.4 Human Problem Solving .................................................174 9.5 Human Window Analysis of Solutions ............................175 9.6 Best Machine Solution ....................................................176 9.7 Related Problems .............................................................177 9.8 Playable Program .............................................................177 9.9 References........................................................................178 Chapter 10: The Monty Hall Problem �������������������179 10.1 Background ......................................................................179 10.2 Problem-Solving Techniques...........................................180 10.3 Solution ............................................................................182 10.4 Human Problem Solving .................................................182 10.5 Related Problems .............................................................183 10.6 References........................................................................184 Contents • ix Chapter 11: Rubik’s Cube ��������������������������������������185 11.1 Background ......................................................................185 11.2 Problem-Solving Techniques...........................................186 11.3 Solution ............................................................................187 11.3.1 Cube Components ..............................................188 11.3.2 Subgoal 1: The Top Cross ...................................193 11.3.3 Subgoal 2: The Top Corners...............................194 11.3.4 Subgoal 4: The New Top Cross ..........................198 11.3.5 Subgoal 5: The New Top’s Corners ....................200 11.3.6 Subgoal 6: Correct Corner Positioning ..............201 11.3.7 Subgoal 7: The Top Edges ..................................203 11.4 Human Problem Solving .................................................205 11.5 Human Window Analysis of Solutions ............................206 11.5.1 The Most Human Window–Compatible Solution ...............................................................208 11.5.2 The Least Human Window–Compatible Solution ...............................................................209 11.6 Best Machine Solution ....................................................212 11.7 Playable Program .............................................................214 11.8 References........................................................................215 Chapter 12: The Prisoner’s Dilemma ��������������������217 12.1 The Traditional Problem* ................................................217 12.2 The Iterated Prisoner’s Dilemma ....................................220 12.3 Applications in Diverse Areas .........................................220 12.4 Related Problems .............................................................223 12.5 References........................................................................223 Part II: Problems Requiring Computer Solutions �����������������������������������������������������������������225 Chapter 13: Sudoku ������������������������������������������������227 13.1 Background ......................................................................228 13.2 Mathematical Analysis .....................................................230 13.3 Problem Solving Techniques and Strategies ...................235 13.4 A Real Life Experiment ...................................................240 13.5 Algorithms for Computer Solutions ................................244

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This book lends insight into solving some well-known AI problems using the most efficient problem-solving methods by humans and computers. The book discusses the importance of developing critical-thinking methods and skills, and develops a consistent approach toward each problem. This book assembles
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