Armies of Ignorance - Rise of American Intelligence Empire

644 Pages·1977·98.525 MB·English

by  William R. Corson

THE
ARMIES
OF
IGNORANCE
>
. •
THE OF THE AMERICAN
RISE
INTELLIGENCE EMPIRE
CORSC
WILLIAM
N
R.
$12.95
0282
THE
AMES
OF
IGNORANCE
R CORSON
WILLIAM
The closing months of 1977 saw the beginning of
the most important debate on the functions and fu-
ture of American intelligence since the original Na-
tional Security Act of 1947 signaled the rise of what
has become an intelligence empire. The Senate In-
telligence hearings, the Watergate revelations, and
the daily barrage of leaks and exposes about "mind
control" and mail-opening programs were merely
a prelude to the struggle to reorganize and control
the bewildering proliferation of agencies, activities,
and responsibilities that make up the vital intelli-
gence shield of this country.
The Armies of Ignorance is one of the most
authoritative and important contributions to under-
standing what has gone on in the sprawling intelli-
gence community and what must be done to ensure
this country's rea—l "national security." Part of the
task is historical this book examines the entire
history of American espionage from the Revolution
to the present. The more important and more dif-
ficult task is that of relating how the intelligence
establishment has really functioned since the early
days of the Second World War and how its un-
written law compares with Congressional mandates,
executive orders, and the U.S. Constitution.
(continuedon back flap)
Books By William R. Corson
The Betrayal
Promise or Peril
The Consequences ofFailure
THE
ABMES
OF
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THE OF THE AMERICAN
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INTELLIGENCE EMPIRE
R CORSON
WILLIAM
The Dial Press/James Wade
New York
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Excerpt from ConfederateSpy:Rose O'Neale Greenhow by Nash K. Burger, published by the
©
K.S. Giniger Company, Inc., in association with Franklin Watts, Inc. Copyright 1967 by
Nash K. Burger. Reprinted by permission ofthe publishers.
Publishedby
The Dial Press/James Wade Books
1 Dag Hammarskjold Plaza
New York, New York 10017
Copyright © 1977 by William R. Corson
All rights reserved. No part ofthisbook may be
reproduced in any form orby any means without the
prior written permission ofthe Publisher, excepting
briefquotes used in connection with reviews written
specifically for inclusion in a magazine or newspaper.
n11
Manufactured in the United States ofAmerica
First printing
Library ofCongress Cataloging in Publication Data
Corson, William R.
The armies ofignorance.
Includes index,
Bibliography.
1. Intelligenceservice—United States. I. Title.
JK468.I6C66 327'12'0973 77-88822
ISBN 0-8037-0282-5
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Itisimpossibletoacknowledgealltheassistance,information,encouragement,
advice and insights ofthose who helped me in the research, preparation and
writingofthisbook. Formany, theircontributionwasthatofpatientteachers
explaining the meaning, significance and interplay of persons and political
factorsineventswhichhadintelligenceimplications,butwhichweredrivenby
other than the facts or truth of intelligence. Others contributed, again, by
explaining and providingperspectiveto theintelligence truthsofthemoment.
Andfinally, others provided assistanceby sharing theirviews about what was
right in American intelligence and how that which was wrong might be
remedied or otherwise improved to meet our nation's genuine intelligence
needs.
The list of persons to whom I owe personal thanks is seemingly endless.
Individuals such as Corporal Danny O'Donnell, USMC, and Sergeant Major
Harry Manion who taught me how to process and not become swamped by
flows of intelligence information; Colonel Henry A. Aplington III, USMC,
whosharedhisskillsandexperienceandhelpedmetounderstandthemeaning
of the bit or piece of intelligence information whose significance was not
immediately apparent; Vice Admiral Rufus Taylor, USN, who by personal
example and tutelage made clear the necessity to provide one's own analysis
and opinion to "higher authority" without fear or favor, and Ambassador
Julius C. Holmes who patiently taught me how to deal with and meet the
intelligenceneeds ofpolicymakers. Thesemenand scoresofothers unhesitat-
ingly communicated the results oftheir own experience, articulated the hard
questionsofintelligenceandprovidedthekindofunflinching,effectivesupport
one must have to carry out intelligence operations.
Thesekinds ofpersonal assistance were equally matchedby the willingness
ofparticipants in some ofthe activities described in thisbook to provide their
interpretation of the human factors and pressures involved in those events.
These persons, such as Bill Harvey, Ray Leddy, Wyn Scott, George Carroll,
Wayne Nelson, John Bross, Tom Braden, Chester Cooper, although not well
knownoutsidetheintelligencecommunity,weremosthelpfulinexplainingthe
intricacies involved in conceiving, planning and executing intelligence activi-
ties. Similarly, extended discussions with Fritz Schwarz, Bill Miller and Bill
vi THE ARMIES OF IGNORANCE
Bader of the Church Committee staffprovided necessary insights in under-
standingthebyplayofknowableeventsaswellastheambiguitiessurrounding
theunknowableoneswhichareperhapslosttohistory. Specialthanksarealso
duetoJohn TayloroftheNationalArchivesforhisgreat help inlocatingkey
documents in the diffuse and widely scattered paper trail ofAmerican intelli-
gence. And similarly, to the librarians at the Presidential Libraries for their
help in filling gaps in that trail and pointing the way to other collections of
papers which give added dimension to their voluminous holdings. To these
personsmustbeaddedMatthewStover,Yale'76,Whoasmyresearchassistant
navigated the twists and turns of America's intelligence paper trail, waded
through many thousands of pages and documents to isolate the continuing
threads in America's intelligence heritage.
To my good friend Justin E. O'Donnell a particular word ofthanks for his
insights, criticisms and encouragement in trying to make clear the human
factor in the overall intelligence process. "OD", as he is known to hundreds
in the intelligence community, is an exceptional person whose career as an
intelligenceprofessionalislivingtestimonythatthesuccessfulpursuitofintel-
ligenceisnotincompatiblewiththepreservation,protectionanddefenseofour
Republic and our personal freedoms.
Forpermissiontoquotefromcopyrightmaterial Iwishtoacknowledgethe
following publishers: Reader's Digest Press for quotations from Harry Ro-
sitzke's The CIA'sSecretOperations (1977); Doubleday Publishing Company
for quotations from Jacob Mogelever's Death To Traitors (1960); Franklin
Watts Inc., for quotations from Nash K. Burger's Confederate Spy: Rose
O'Neale Greenhow (1967); and the New York Public Library for quotations
from theElizabethVan Lewpapers anddiaryinits ManuscriptandArchives
Division.
Althoughmanypersonswereofassistanceintheoveralldevelopmentofthis
book from its earliest inception to final writing, its errors of omission and
responsibilityforinterpretationsareminealone. Theseareacknowledgedhere
not as a "cop-out," but rather in simple recognition of the fact that final
historical truth about American intelligence is an elusive goal which must be
pursued in a series of steps or approximations and which because of faulty
memories, destroyed, missing or non-existent documentation and the valid
necessitytokeepsomethingssecretmaystillleavethegoalbeyondourgrasp.
Tomyagent,JohnCushman,andeditor,JimWade,aspecialkindofthanks
for their unflagging support, suggestions and ideas about how best to portray
the "long march" ofAmerican intelligence from its beginnings and into the
uncertain future. Finally, I gratefully acknowledge the patience and under-
standing ofmy wife, Judy, and sons, Adam and Zachary, without which it
would not have been possible to traverse the odyssey involved in researching
and writing this book.
Potomac, Maryland William R. Corson
August, 1977
—
C"
This book is respectfully dedicated
to the President and the Vice-President
of the United States of America
and to my fellow citizens.
In times ofchange and danger when there
is a quicksand offear under men's reason-
ing, a sense ofcontinuity with generations
gonebeforecan stretchlikealifelineacross
the scary present.
John Dos Passos
The Ground We Stand On (1941)
CONTENTS
1. Changing the Intelligence Guard 3
2. America's Intelligence Heritage 41
3. Countdown to Pearl Harbor 79
4. The World War II Struggle for Intelligence
Control 151
5. Truman and the Intelligence Community: Part I 221
6. Truman and the Intelligence Community: Part II 291
7. Eisenhower: The Cold War Legacy 331
8. Kennedy to Carter: Intelligence and Policy Making 381
9. The Future of American Intelligence 453
10. Afterword 485
Source Notes 601
Bibliography 605
Glossary 611
Index ' 619