Arctic Yearbook 2012

350 Pages·2012·5.17 MB·English

Lassi Heininen, Editor
Heather Exner-Pirot, Managing Editor
Joël Plouffe, Managing Editor
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Arctic Yearbook 2012 Table of Contents

ACRONYMS .............................................................................................................................................................. IV
PREFACE ................................................................................................................................................................ VIII
SECTION I: ARCTIC POLICIES ......................................................................................................................... 1
STATE OF THE ARCTIC STRATEGIES AND POLICIES – A SUMMARY ....................................................................... 2
NON-ARCTIC STATES: THE OBSERVER QUESTION AT THE ARCTIC COUNCIL .................................................. 48
THAWING ICE AND FRENCH FOREIGN POLICY: A PRELIMINARY ASSESSMENT ............................................... 52
CHINA AND THE ARCTIC ............................................................................................................................................ 81
COMMENTARY: CHINA AND ARCTIC AFFAIRS ...................................................................................................... 92
JAPAN’S ARCTIC POLICY: THE SUM OF MANY PARTS ........................................................................................... 94
SINGAPORE: AN EMERGING ARCTIC ACTOR ....................................................................................................... 105
AN ARCTIC STRATEGY FOR SCOTLAND ................................................................................................................ 115
THE UNITED KINGDOM AND THE ARCTIC IN THE 21ST CENTURY ................................................................. 131
POLAND AND THE ARCTIC: BETWEEN SCIENCE AND DIPLOMACY .................................................................. 140
COMMENTARY: EU’S NEW ARCTIC COMMUNICATION: TOWARDS UNDERSTANDING OF A GREATER ROLE
.................................................................................................................................................................................... 157
SECTION II: CRITICAL GEOPOLITICS .................................................................................................. 160
INUIT POLITICAL ENGAGEMENT IN THE ARCTIC ................................................................................................ 161
COMMENTARY: A VOICE FROM THE ARCTIC ...................................................................................................... 178
THE ARCTIC ENVIRONMENT – FROM LOW TO HIGH POLITICS ....................................................................... 180
25 YEARS OF ARCTIC ENVIRONMENTAL AGENCY: CHANGING ISSUES AND POWER RELATIONS .............. 195
SECTION III: CIRCUMPOLAR RELATIONS ......................................................................................... 224
NEW DIRECTIONS FOR GOVERNANCE IN THE ARCTIC REGION ....................................................................... 225
SHIPPING AND RESOURCES IN THE ARCTIC OCEAN: A HEMISPHERIC PERSPECTIVE1 ................................. 247
THE FUTURE OF ARCTIC SHIPPING ALONG THE TRANSPOLAR SEA ROUTE .................................................. 281
COMMENTARY: THINKING ABOUT THE ‘NEW’ ARCTIC GEOGRAPHY ............................................................ 308
COLLABORATIVE INFRASTRUCTURES: A ROADMAP FOR INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION IN THE ARCTIC
.................................................................................................................................................................................... 311
SECTION IV: UPDATE ON THE UARCTIC AND NRF THEMATIC NETWORK ON
GEOPOLITICS AND SECURITY ................................................................................................................ 334
COMMENTARY: DIALOGUE ACROSS BORDERS IN THE CIRCUMPOLAR NORTH: HIGHLIGHTS FROM THE
2012 CALOTTE ACADEMY ON WATER IN/AND THE ARCTIC .......................................................................... 335
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Arctic Yearbook 2012

Heininen, Lassi. (Ed.). (2012). Arctic Yearbook 2012. Akureyri, Iceland: Northern Research
Forum. Available from http://www.arcticyearbook.com

This publication is available under limited copyright protection. You may download,
distribute, photocopy, cite or excerpt this document provided it is properly and fully credited
and not used for commercial purposes.

Editor:
Lassi Heininen, University of Lapland [[email protected]]

Managing Editors:
Heather Exner-Pirot, University of Saskatchewan [[email protected]];
Joël Plouffe, University of Québec at Montreal (UQAM) [[email protected]]

Editorial Board:
Dr. Lawson Brigham (Distinguished Professor of Geography & Arctic Policy, University of
Alaska Fairbanks; Senior Fellow, Institute of the North, United States)
Dr. Robert Corell (Principal and Professor II, Global Environment & Technology
Foundation; Chair of Global Science Associates; University of Tromsø & University
of the Arctic, Norway)
Dr. Ólafur Ragnar Grímsson (Honorable President of Iceland)
Dr. Yang Jian (Vice-President of Shanghai Institutes for International Studies, China)
Dr. Kari Laine (Director of the Thule Institute, University of Oulu, Finland)
Dr. Gustaf Lind (Arctic Council SAO Chair, Sweden)
Dr. Steven E. Miller (Director of the International Security Program; Editor-in-Chief of
International Security, Harvard University, United States)
Dr. Alexander Pelyasov (Russian Academy of Sciences; Director of the Center of
Northern and Arctic Economics; Ministry of Economic Development & Trade,
Russia)
Ms. Diana Wallis (MEP & Former Vice-President of the EU Parliament, United Kingdom)
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About Arctic Yearbook

The Arctic Yearbook is the outcome of the Northern Research Forum and the University of
the Arctic Thematic Network (TN) on Geopolitics and Security. The TN also organizes the
annual Calotte Academy.
The Arctic Yearbook is intended to be the preeminent repository of critical analysis on the
Arctic region, with a mandate to inform observers about the state of Arctic geopolitics and
security. It is an international and interdisciplinary peer-reviewed publication, published
online at [www.arcticyearbook.com] to ensure wide distribution and accessibility to a variety
of stakeholders and observers.
Arctic Yearbook material is obtained through a combination of invited contributions and an
open call for papers. For more information on contributing to the Arctic Yearbook, or
participating in the UArctic TN on Geopolitics and Security, contact the Editor, Lassi
Heininen.

ISSN 2298–2418

The Arctic Yearbook has received generous technical support from the Arctic Portal
[http://arcticportal.org/].
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Acronyms

A5 Arctic 5
AAC Arctic Athabaskan Council
AANDC Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada
AC Arctic Council
ACAP Arctic Contaminants Action Program
ACIA Arctic Climate Impact Assessment
AEPS Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy
AHDR Arctic Human Development Report
AMAP Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Program
AMSA Arctic Marine Shipping Assessment
AMSP Arctic Marine Strategic Plan
ANWR Arctic National Wildlife Refuge
AOR Arctic Ocean Review
ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations
ASSW Arctic Science Summit Week
AWPPA Arctic Waters Pollution Prevention Act
BAM Baikal-Amur Mainline
BAT Best Available Techniques
BEAC Barents Euro Arctic Council
BEAR Barents Euro Arctic Region
BEP Best Environmental Practice
BIS Department for Business, Innovation and Skills (UK)
BP British Petroleum
CAA Chinese Arctic and Antarctic Administration
CAFF Conservation of Arctic Fauna and Flora
CARC Canadian Arctic Resources Committee
CBD Convention on Biological Diversity
CBSS Council of the Baltic Sea States
CCGS Canadian Coast Guard Ship
CEA Centre d’Etudes Arctiques
CEARC Centre Européen Arctique
CFP Common Fisheries Policy
CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species
CLCS Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf
CNRS Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (France)
COP15 15th Conference of Parties (to the Kyoto Protocol)
CORE Centre for Offshore Research & Engineering
CP Le Cercle Polaire
CPAR Conference of Parliamentarians of the Arctic Region
DC Davis Corridor
DECC Department of Energy and Climate Change (UK)
DEFRA Department for Food and Rural Affairs (UK)
DFAIT Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade (Canada)
DfT Department for Transport (UK)
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DND Department of National Defence (Canada)
DWT Dead Weight Tonnes
EBM Ecosystem Based Management
EC European Commission
EEZ Exclusive Economic Zone
EFTA European Free Trade Agreeement
EIA Environmental Impact Assessment
ENGO Environmental Non Governmental Organizations
EP European Parliament
EPPR Emergency Prevention, Preparedness and Response
ESDP European Security and Defense Policy
EU European Union
FC Fram Corridor
FCO UK Foreign and Commonwealth Office
FPSO Floating Production Storage and Offloading
GBP Great Britain Pound
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GEGA Groupe d’Etude sur la Gouvernance Arctique (France)
GPS Global Positioning System
HDI Human Development Index
IASC International Arctic Science Committee
IASSA International Arctic Social Science Association
ICC Inuit Circumpolar Council
IEA International Energy Agency
IGO Intergovernmental Organisation
ILO International Labour Organisation
IMO International Maritime Organisation
INSROP International Northern Sea Route Programme
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
IPEV Institut Polaire Français
IPS Indigenous Peoples’ Secretariat
IPY International Polar Year
IR International Relations
ISA International Seabed Authority
ITC Inuit Tapirisat of Canada
ITK Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami
IUCN International Union for the Conservation of Nature
JAMSTEC Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology
JANSROP Japan Northern Sea Route Programme
JARE Japanese Antarctic Research Expedition
JAXA Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency
JCAR Japan Consortium for Arctic Environmental Research
JOGMEC Japan Oil, Gas, and Metals National Corporation
LNG Liquefied Natural Gas
MARPOL Convention on the Prevention of Pollution by Ships
MCA Maritime and Coastguard Agency (UK)
MEP Member of European Parliament
MEXT Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology
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MFA Ministry of Foreign Affairs
MLIT Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism (Japan)
MMPA Marine Mammals Protection Act (USA)
MoFA Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Japan)
MOU Memorandum of Understanding
MP Member of Parliament
MPA Maritime and Port Authority (Singapore)
MT Metric Tonnes
NAFTA North American Free Trade Agreement
NAFO Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Organization
NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration
NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organisation
ND Northern Dimension (EU)
NDFP Northern Dimension of Canadian Foreign Policy
NEAFC North East Atlantic Fisheries Convention
NEP Northeast Passage
NERC Natural Environment Research Council (UK)
NGO Non-Governmental Organisation
NIPR National Institute of Polar Research (Japan)
NMC Northern Maritime Corridor
NORA Nordic Atlantic Cooperation
NORAD North American Air Defence Command
NORDEFCO Nordic Defense Cooperation
NORDREG Northern Canada Vessel Traffic Services
NORDSUP Nordic Supportive Defense Structures
NPC Northern Pacific Corridor
NSIDC National Snow and Ice Data Center
NSPD National Security Presidential Directive
NSR Northern Sea Route
NUS National University of Singapore
NWP Northwest Passage
NWT Northwest Territories
OME Offshore and Marine Engineering
OPRC International Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response and
Co-operation
OPRF Ocean Policy Research Foundation (Japan)
OSPAR Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the
North-East Atlantic
PA Polar Ambassador
PAME Protection of the Arctic Marine Environment
PAP People’s Action Party (Singapore)
PAS Polish Academy of Science
PM Prime Minister
PMO Prime Minister’s Office
POPs Persistent Organic Pollutants
PP Permanent Participants
PRS Stanislaw Siedlecki Polish Research Station
PRU Polar Regions Unit (UK)
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PSA Port of Singapore Authority
RAIPON Russian Association of Indigenous Peoples of the North
RCMP Royal Canadian Mounted Police
RFE Russian Far East
RFMO Regional Fisheries Management Organization
SAO Senior Arctic Official
SAON Sustaining Arctic Observation Network
SAR Search and Rescue
SCPAR Standing Committee of Parliamentarians of the Arctic Region
SDF Japan Maritime Self Defense Force
SDWG Sustainable Development Working Group (Arctic Council)
SIPRI Stockholm International Peace Research Institute
SMC Singapore’s Maritime Cluster
SNP Scottish National Party
SOE State Owned Enterprises
SOF Ship and Ocean Foundation
SOLAS Safety of Life at Sea (IMO)
STCW Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers
TNC Transnational Corporations
TPP Trans Polar Passage
TSR Transpolar Sea Route
UDHR Universal Declaration on Human Rights
UK United Kingdom
ULCC Ultra Large Crude Carrier
UN United Nations
UNCCD United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification
UNCED United Nations Conference on Environment and Development
UNCLOS United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
UNCTAD United Nations Conference on Trade and Development
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
UNDRIP United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples
UNECE United Nations European Economic Commission for Europe
UNEP United Nations Environmental Programme
UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
UNIS University of Svalbard
USA United States of America
USGS United States Geological Survey
USSR Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
VLCC Very Large Crude Carrier
WCED World Commission on Environment and Development
WDGF Walter and Duncan Gordon Foundation
WMD Weapons of Mass Destruction
WMO World Meteorological Organization
WWF World Wildlife Fund
WWII World War II
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Preface

The Arctic serves as a good example of how states can cooperate pragmatically, despite great
challenges and rapid change. The Arctic Council is the ‘hub’ of this cooperation. Since it was
founded in 1996, it has managed to present many ground-breaking reports, such as the
Arctic Climate Impact Assessment, and has embraced more solid decision-making as
witnessed by the adoption of the Arctic Search and Rescue Agreement in 2011.
One of the main reasons behind the success of the Arctic Council is its science-policy
interface. Important reports on priority issues by the working groups create a foundation for
efficient negotiations among the Senior Arctic Officials and decisions by the foreign
ministers. Knowledge and science relating to the Arctic are thus central to the success of
Arctic diplomacy. The Arctic Yearbook is a very important part of the scientific discourse on
Arctic issues.
Sweden is more than half-way through its Chairmanship of the Arctic Council, and the gavel
will be handed over to Canada in conjunction with the Ministerial Meeting in Kiruna in May
2013. The remaining period of the Chairmanship will doubtlessly prove to be a challenge.
The time has now come to negotiate the final deliverables on all the important priorities of
our Chairmanship.
Protecting the environment from oil emissions, resilience of Arctic nature and communities,
and the human dimension of the Arctic are among the top priorities for the Swedish
Chairmanship of the Arctic Council. We continuously strive for progress and improvements
in these specific areas.
The issue of Arctic oil spill prevention and response is leading to concrete results. We
anticipate a number of best practice recommendations for the prevention of oil spills and
hope that the foreign ministers will be able to sign a cooperation agreement between the
states to enable the effective control of any spills. The Arctic Resilience Report presents a
better understanding of Arctic change. It identifies potential shocks and large shifts in
ecosystem services and analyses how these could affect societies. Lastly, we have emphasised
the importance of strengthening the human dimension in the Arctic by, for example,
arranging seminars on the issues of food and water security and corporate social
responsibility, which we hope will lead to valuable recommendations.
Bearing in mind the importance the Arctic Council attaches to research, I am very happy to
have been invited to be a part of this publication. I would particularly like to thank all of the
authors for their remarkable work, which I very much look forward to reading.

Gustaf Lind
Arctic Council SAO Chair
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