Architectural Acoustics Handbook

545 Pages·2017·23.71 MB·English

by  Ning Xiang

A R C H I T E C T U R A L
A C O U S T I C S
H A N D B O O K
N i n g X i a n g
E d i t o r
Copyright © 2017 by J. Ross Publishing
ISBN-13: 978-1-60427-004-4
Printed and bound in the U.S.A. Printed on acid-free paper.
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Xiang, Ning, editor.
Architectural acoustics handbook / edited by Ning Xiang.
Plantation, FL : J. Ross Publishing, 2017. | Includes
bibliographical references.
LCCN 2016052914 | ISBN 9781604270044 (hardcover : alk. paper)
LCSH: Architectural acoustics—Handbooks, manuals, etc.
LCC NA2800 .A684 2017
DDC 690/.2—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016052914
This publication contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources.
Reprinted material is used with permission, and sources are indicated. Reasonable effort has
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Cover Photographs (top down):
Wild Beast Music Pavilion, CalArts, Valencia, CA
Photographer: Tom Bonner Photography
Granada Theatre Restoration, Santa Barbara, CA
Photographer: Lawrence Anderson/ESTO
Zipper Concert Hall, Colburn School for Performing Arts, Los Angeles, CA
Photographer: Foaad Farah Images
ACOUSTICS: INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION SERIES
Ning Xiang, Editor-in-Chief
Worship Space Acoustics
by Mendel Kleiner, David Lloyd Klepper, Rendell R. Torres
Acoustics and Audio Technology, Third Edition
by Mendel Kleiner
Head-Related Transfer Function and Virtual Auditory Display, Second Edition
by Bosun Xie
Architectural Acoustics Handbook
by Ning Xiang

Contents
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xix
About the Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxi
About the Contributors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxiii
PART I Architectural Acoustics Essentials
Chapter 1 Computational Modeling of Room Acoustics I: Wave-Based Modeling . . . . . . . .1
U. Peter Svensson, Jonathan Botts, and Lauri Savioja
1.1 Room Acoustic Modeling ................................................. 1
1.2 Analytical Solutions ..................................................... 2
1.2.1 Parallelepipedic (Shoebox) Room ..................................... 4
1.2.2 Modal Solution + Propagating Waves .................................. 4
1.2.3 Domain Matching.................................................. 5
1.3 Numerical Solutions ..................................................... 6
1.3.1 Finite Difference Methods ........................................... 6
1.3.2 Finite Element and Boundary Element Methods .......................... 8
1.3.3 Spectral Methods .................................................. 8
References............................................................. 8
Chapter 2 Computational Modeling of Room Acoustics II: Geometrical
Acoustics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11
U. Peter Svensson, Samuel Siltanen, Lauri Savioja, and Ning Xiang
2.1 Unifying Frameworks of Geometrical Acoustics .............................. 11
2.1.1 Acoustic Radiative Transfer Model ................................... 11
2.1.2 Room Acoustic Rendering Equation .................................. 12
2.2 Deterministic Modeling of Specular Reflections and Dif fractions................. 14
2.2.1 Image Source Method for a Single Surface ............................. 14
2.2.2 Exact Image Source Solution for Shoebox-Shaped Rooms................. 15
2.2.3 Image Source Method for Arbitrarily Shaped Rooms ..................... 17
2.2.3.1 General Algorithm.......................................... 17
2.2.3.1.1 The Contribution by an Image Source................... 19
2.2.3.2 Algorithm with Diffraction ................................... 19
2.2.3.2.1 Contribution by a First-Order Diffraction ES ............. 20
2.2.4 Beam Tracing .................................................... 21
2.3 Statistical Modeling of Geometrical Acoustics................................ 23
2.3.1 Ray Tracing...................................................... 23
2.3.2 Radiance Exchange Methods ........................................ 25
2.3.3 Diffusion Equation Method ......................................... 25
References............................................................ 26
v
vi Architectural Acoustics Handbook
Chapter 3 Acoustics in Long Rooms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29
Jian Kang
Introduction........................................................... 29
3.1 Fundamentals of Acoustic Characteristics in Long Rooms....................... 29
3.1.1 Ray Theory...................................................... 30
3.1.2 Wave Theory..................................................... 31
3.1.3 Definition of Long Rooms .......................................... 31
3.2 Acoustic Simulation of Long Rooms ....................................... 32
3.2.1 Image Source Model............................................... 33
3.2.2 Radiosity Model .................................................. 36
3.2.3 Ray Tracing and Combined Ray Tracing and Radiosity ................... 38
3.3 Acoustic Formulae for Long Rooms........................................ 38
3.3.1 SPL with Geometrically Reflecting Boundaries .......................... 38
3.3.2 T with Geometrically Reflecting Boundaries ........................... 40
30
3.3.3 SPL with Diffusely Reflecting Boundaries .............................. 41
3.3.4 SPL Based on Wave Theory......................................... 41
3.3.5 An Empirical SPL Formula ......................................... 42
3.4 Effects of Designable Factors ............................................. 42
3.4.1 Sound Distribution ................................................ 42
3.4.2 Reverberation with a Single Source ................................... 44
3.4.3 Reverberation with Multiple Sources.................................. 47
3.5 Case Studies Based on Scale Modeling...................................... 50
3.5.1 Diffusers ........................................................ 50
3.5.2 Absorbers ....................................................... 52
3.5.3 Reflectors and Obstructions ......................................... 53
3.5.4 Train Noise and the STI in Underground Stations ........................ 54
3.6 Case Studies Based on Site Measurements................................... 54
Defining Terms ........................................................ 56
References............................................................ 57
For Further Information.................................................. 58
Chapter 4 Acoustics in Coupled Volume Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59
Ning Xiang
Abstract .............................................................. 59
4.1 Introduction........................................................... 59
4.2 Statistical Acoustics Models .............................................. 60
4.3 Wave-Acoustical Methods................................................ 62
4.4 Geometrical Acoustics Methods ........................................... 64
4.5 Diffusion Equation Methods.............................................. 65
4.6 Experimental Investigations and Analysis Tools............................... 68
Summary ............................................................. 71
Acknowledgments...................................................... 71
References............................................................ 71
Chapter 5 Advanced Measurements Techniques: Methods in Architectural
Acoustics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75
Wolfgang Ahnert and Stefan Feistel
5.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
5.2 Measurement Methods .................................................. 76
Contents vii
5.2.1 Traditional Sound Level Measurements and Assessment................... 76
5.2.2 Measurement Techniques Based on Fourier Analysis ..................... 77
5.2.2.1 Fundamentals.............................................. 77
5.2.2.2 Conventional Excitation Signals ............................... 79
5.2.2.3 Sweep-Based Measurements.................................. 81
5.2.2.4 Noise Applications.......................................... 82
5.2.2.5 Technique Using Maximum-Length Sequences ................... 83
5.2.2.6 Time-Delay Spectrometry Method ............................. 85
5.2.2.7 Measurements Using Arbitrary Excitation Signals ................. 85
5.2.3 Absolute and Relative Measurements, Calibration........................ 89
5.2.3.1 Measurement Parameters..................................... 89
5.2.4 Measurement Errors, Optimization, and Limits of Application.............. 90
5.2.4.1 Measurement System and Measurement Chain.................... 91
5.2.4.2 External Influences .......................................... 91
5.2.4.3 Post-Processing ............................................ 92
5.3 Room Acoustic Measurements ............................................ 94
5.3.1 Introductory Comments ............................................ 94
5.3.2 Selection of Measurement Locations .................................. 95
5.3.3 Measurement of Room Acoustic Properties............................. 95
5.3.4 Time Domain Quantities............................................ 96
5.3.5 Frequency Domain Quantities ....................................... 99
5.3.6 Time-Frequency Representation (Waterfall Plots)........................ 99
5.3.7 Special Applications............................................... 99
5.3.7.1 Filtering and Averaging ..................................... 100
5.3.7.2 In Situ Measurement of the Absorption Coefficient ............... 102
5.3.7.3 Measurement of Scattering Coefficients ........................ 103
5.3.7.4 Modal Analysis ........................................... 105
5.4 Applications in Sound Reinforcement...................................... 106
5.4.1 Electrical Verification ............................................. 106
5.4.1.1 Subjective Tests ........................................... 106
5.4.1.2 Electrical Measurements .................................... 107
5.4.2 Acoustic Measurement and Tuning .................................. 108
5.4.2.1 Introductory Comment...................................... 108
5.4.2.2 SPL Coverage ............................................ 109
5.4.2.3 Maximum Sound Pressure Level.............................. 110
5.4.2.4 Measurement of the Frequency Response....................... 111
5.4.2.5 Measurement of the Speech Intelligibility STI ................... 112
5.4.2.6 Subjective Assessment of Speech Transmission Index Values ....... 114
5.4.2.7 Signal Roughness and Source Mislocalization ................... 114
5.4.2.8 Subjective Assessment...................................... 115
5.4.3 Additional Measurements.......................................... 116
5.4.3.1 Signal Alignment.......................................... 116
5.4.3.2 Feedback Test............................................. 116
5.4.3.3 Polarity Test.............................................. 116
5.5 Final Remarks ........................................................ 117
References........................................................... 117
Chapter 6 Room-Acoustic Energy Decay Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .119
Ning Xiang
viii Architectural Acoustics Handbook
Abstract ............................................................. 119
6.1 Introduction.......................................................... 119
6.2 Integrated Impulse-Response Method...................................... 120
6.2.1 Schroeder Integration and Energy-Time Function (Curve) ................ 120
6.2.2 Schroeder Decay Model........................................... 122
6.2.3 Characteristics of Schroeder Decay Functions.......................... 124
6.3 Truncation Approach................................................... 124
6.4 Noise Subtraction ..................................................... 125
6.4.1 Pre-Subtraction.................................................. 125
6.4.2 Post-Subtraction (Noise Compensation)............................... 126
6.4.3 Least-Squares Fitting for Noise Estimation ............................ 127
6.5 Nonlinear Regression .................................................. 128
6.6 Two Levels of Bayesian Decay Analysis.................................... 131
6.6.1 Model Selection: The Second Level of Inference........................ 131
6.6.2 Parameter Estimation: The First Level of Inference...................... 132
6.6.3 Bayesian Information Criterion ..................................... 132
6.6.4 Advanced Sampling Methods....................................... 134
Summary ............................................................ 135
Acknowledgment...................................................... 135
References........................................................... 135
Chapter 7 Sound Insulation in Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .137
Carl Hopkins
7.1 Introduction.......................................................... 137
7.2 Airborne Sound Insulation—Direct Transmission ............................ 137
7.2.1 Descriptors ..................................................... 137
7.2.2 Solid Plates..................................................... 138
7.2.3 Cavity Wall and Floor Constructions ................................. 142
7.2.4 Wall and Floor Linings............................................ 146
7.2.5 Air Paths Due to Holes, Gaps, and Slits............................... 150
7.2.6 Glazing and Windows............................................. 150
7.2.7 Doors.......................................................... 152
7.2.8 Combining Sound Reduction Indices for Different Building Elements
that Form a Single Surface ......................................... 153
7.3 Impact Sound Insulation—Direct Transmission.............................. 153
7.3.1 Standard Impact Sources .......................................... 154
7.3.2 Descriptors ..................................................... 157
7.3.3 Solid Plates..................................................... 157
7.3.4 Timber Floor.................................................... 157
7.3.5 Floor Coverings ................................................. 158
7.4 Sound Insulation In Situ ................................................ 160
7.4.1 Descriptors ..................................................... 160
7.4.1.1 Sound Insulation Within Buildings ............................ 160
7.4.1.2 Façade Sound Insulation .................................... 162
7.4.2 Flanking Transmission Between Rooms—Airborne Sound Insulation ....... 163
7.4.3 Flanking Transmission Between Rooms—Impact Sound Insulation......... 168
Acknowledgments..................................................... 169
References........................................................... 170
Contents ix
Chapter 8 Auditory Perception in Rooms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .173
Jonas Braasch and Jens Blauert
8.1 Introduction.......................................................... 173
8.2 Localization of a Single Sound Source..................................... 173
8.3 Listening to Multiple Sound Sources ...................................... 178
8.3.1 The Precedence Effect ............................................ 179
8.3.2 Spatial Impression ............................................... 181
8.3.3 Instrumental Indices for Perceptual Assessment of Rooms ................ 185
8.3.4 Limitations of the Room-Impulse-Response Concept .................... 189
8.4 The Quality of the Acoustics ............................................. 190
Conclusion........................................................... 193
Acknowledgments..................................................... 193
References........................................................... 193
Chapter 9 Auralization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .197
Michael Vorländer
9.1 Introduction.......................................................... 197
9.2 Definitions and Standards in Architectural Acoustics.......................... 198
9.2.1 Impulse Responses in Rooms....................................... 198
9.2.2 Sound Transmission Between Rooms ................................ 199
9.2.3 Structure-Borne Sound in Buildings.................................. 199
9.3 Audio Signal Processing for Architectural Acoustics.......................... 200
9.3.1 Discrete and Fast Fourier Transformation ............................. 201
9.3.2 Convolution..................................................... 202
9.4 The Concept of Auralization............................................. 203
9.4.1 Source Characterization ........................................... 205
9.4.2 Filter Construction ............................................... 206
9.4.2.1 Filter Design from Room Impulse Response Data ................ 206
9.4.2.2 Filter Design from Sound Transmission Data .................... 209
9.4.2.3 Filter Design from Impact Sound Data ......................... 211
9.4.3 Spatial Sound Reproduction........................................ 212
9.5 Challenges and Limitations.............................................. 213
9.5.1 Level of Detail of the Room Model .................................. 214
9.5.2 Diffraction and Seat-Dip Effect ..................................... 214
9.5.3 Uncertain Absorption ............................................. 215
9.5.4 Modes......................................................... 215
9.6 Real-Time Processing for Virtual Room Acoustics............................ 215
Defining Terms ....................................................... 216
References........................................................... 218
For Further Information................................................. 219
Chapter 10 Room-Related Sound Representation Using Loudspeakers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .221
Jens Blauert and Rudolf Rabenstein
10.1 Introduction.......................................................... 221
10.2 Intensity Stereophony .................................................. 222
10.3 Amplitude-Difference Panning ........................................... 224
10.4 Surround ............................................................ 227
10.5 Spherical-Harmonics Synthesis........................................... 228
10.5.1 Classical Ambisonics ............................................ 228