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Archaeology Underwater: The NAS Guide to Principles and Practice PDF

272 Pages·2008·14.16 MB·English
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9781405175913_1_pre.qxd 5/8/08 9:46 AM Page i Underwater Archaeology The Nautical Archaeology Society also publishes The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology with Blackwell Publishing, a new series of monograph reports and a members’ newsletter, Nautical Archaeology. It runs several public participation projects. Underwater Archaeology: The NAS Guide to Principles and Practice Second Edition Edited by Amanda Bowens © 2009 Nautical Archaeological Society ISBN: 978-1-405-17592-0 9781405175913_1_pre.qxd 5/8/08 9:46 AM Page iii Second Edition Underwater Archaeology The NAS Guide to Principles and Practice Editor: Amanda Bowens, BA MA THE NAUTICAL ARCHAEOLOGY SOCIETY FORT CUMBERLAND FORT CUMBERLAND ROAD PORTSMOUTH PO4 9LD, UK 9781405175913_1_pre.qxd 5/8/08 9:46 AM Page iv This edition first published 2009 © 2009 by Nautical Archaeological Society Blackwell Publishing was acquired by John Wiley & Sons in February 2007. Blackwell’s publishing program has been merged with Wiley’s global Scientific, Technical, and Medical business to form Wiley-Blackwell. Registered Office John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, United Kingdom Editorial Offices 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148-5020, USA 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford, OX4 2DQ, UK The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK For details of our global editorial offices, for customer services, and for information about how to apply for permission to reuse the copyright material in this book please see our website at www.wiley.com/wiley-blackwell. The right of the Nautical Archaeological Society to be identified as the author of the editorial material in this work has been asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, without the prior permission of the publisher. Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books. Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks. All brand names and product names used in this book are trade names, service marks, trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective owners. The publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book. This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information in regard to the subject matter covered. It is sold on the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. If professional advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional should be sought. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Nautical Archaeology Society. Underwater archaeology : the NAS guide to principles and practice / author, the Nautical Archaeology Society; editor, Amanda Bowens. – 2nd ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-4051-7592-0 (hardcover : alk. paper)—ISBN 978-1-4051-7591-3 (pbk. : alk. paper) 1. Underwater archaeology. 2. Shipwrecks. 3. Underwater archaeology—Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Bowens, Amanda. II. Title. CC77.U5N39 2009 930.1′028′04—dc22 2007048319 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Set in 10.5/12.5 Minion by Graphicraft Limited, Hong Kong Printed and bound in Singapore by C.O.S. Printers Pte Ltd 1 2009 9781405175913_1_pre.qxd 5/7/08 6:24 PM Page v Contents List of Figures viii 5 Project Planning 34 List of Plates xi The Project Design 34 Foreword xiii Further Information 37 Acknowledgements xiv 6 Safety on Archaeological Sites Under Water and on the Foreshore 38 1 The NAS Handbook – Why It Was Risk Assessments 38 Written 1 Diving Project Plan 39 Codes of Practice 39 2 Underwater Archaeology 2 Control of Diving Operations 40 What Is Archaeology? 2 Working Under Water 40 What Is Archaeology Under Water? 5 Potential Diving Problems and Solutions 40 What Is Not Archaeology Under Water? 6 Safety During Excavation 42 Closely Related and Complementary Inter-Tidal Site Safety 43 Approaches (Ethnography and Further Information 44 Experimental Archaeology) 8 Further Information 10 7 International and National Laws Relating to Archaeology Under Water 45 3 Getting Involved in Underwater and Jurisdiction – Where Do the Laws Foreshore Archaeology 11 Apply? 45 Further Information 13 The Regime in International Waters 46 International Salvage Law 47 4 Basic Principles – Making the Most Underwater Cultural Heritage and of the Clues 15 Salvage Law 47 The Importance of Underwater Sites 15 Ownership of Underwater Site Types 17 Cultural Heritage 48 The Range of Evidence on an Abandonment of Ownership 48 Archaeological Site 19 National Legislation 48 Links Between Categories of Evidence 22 International Conventions 49 Using the Evidence 22 Case Studies 50 Dating 24 Further Information 52 Environment and Site-Formation Processes 28 8 Archaeological Recording 53 The Deterioration of Wood 30 The Need for Recording 53 Culture and Site-Formation Processes 31 Recording Systems 54 Further Information 33 Planning the Recording: What to Record 54 v 9781405175913_1_pre.qxd 5/7/08 6:24 PM Page vi vi CONTENTS Recording Information On Site 54 13 Geophysical and Remote-Sensing Recording Timbers 57 Surveys 103 Recording Contexts 58 Search Patterns, Navigation and Recording Stratigraphy 58 Positioning 103 Recording Environmental Evidence 60 Acoustic Systems 104 Recording Samples 60 Bathymetric Survey 104 Recording Survey Results 60 Echo-Sounders 105 Recording Plans and Sections 60 Multibeam Swath Systems 105 Recording Photographic Results 60 Bottom-Classification Systems 106 Conservation Records 61 Sidescan Sonar 107 Identifying Archaeological Material 61 Sub-Bottom Profiling 108 Tags and Labelling 62 Magnetometry 111 Storing the Information 62 Integrated Surveys 112 Computing Options and Issues 63 Submersibles: ROVs and AUVs 112 Geographical Information Systems 63 Aerial Photography 113 Explaining, Documenting, and Further Information 113 Supervising the System 63 Further Information 64 14 Underwater Survey 114 Types of Survey 114 9 Historical Research 65 An Initial Sketch 116 Types of Evidence 66 Planning 117 Locating Primary Sources 66 Setting Up a Baseline/Control Points 118 The Internet 68 Installing Survey Points 119 Methods of Research 69 The Principles of Survey 120 Further Information 70 Survey Using Tape-Measures, Grids and Drafting Film 123 10 Photography 71 Vertical Control (Height/Depth) 124 Photographic Theory 72 Drawing/Planning Frames 125 Digital Photography 73 Grid-Frames 126 Surface Photography 74 Processing Measurements and Drawing Photographing Finds 74 up the Site-Plan 127 Underwater Photography 75 Three-Dimensional Computer-Based Underwater Photographic Techniques 76 Survey 127 Digital Darkroom 77 Acoustic Positioning Systems 132 Mosaics – Photo or Video 78 Positioning the Site in the Real World 133 Video Cameras 79 Further Information 134 Video Technique 80 Video Editing 81 15 Destructive Investigative Techniques 135 Further Information 82 Probing 135 Sampling 136 11 Position-Fixing 83 Excavation 141 Geographical Coordinates 84 Further Information 147 Accuracy 86 Methods of Position-Fixing 87 16 Archaeological Conservation and Equipment 94 First-Aid for Finds 148 Further Information 95 Underwater Burial Environments 149 Materials Degradation and Post- 12 Underwater Search Methods 96 Excavation Deterioration 150 Positioning 96 Principal Risks to Finds During and Coverage 96 After Recovery 152 Safety 96 Principles and Procedures for First-Aid Diver Search Methods 97 for Underwater Finds 152 9781405175913_1_pre.qxd 5/7/08 6:24 PM Page vii CONTENTS vii Lifting, Handling and Transportation 154 20 Presenting, Publicizing and Publishing Approaches to Packing and Storage 156 Archaeological Work 189 Sampling and Analysis 157 The Importance of Publicizing (Where Initial Cleaning 157 and When) 189 Holding and Pre-Conservation Identifying and Satisfying an Audience 190 Treatment Solutions 157 Methods of Presentation 191 Record-Keeping 158 Writing Reports and Publications 194 X-Radiography and Facilities 159 A Significant Achievement and Health and Safety 159 Contribution 196 Insurance 159 Further Information 197 Checklists 159 Further Information 162 Appendix 1: Anchor Recording 198 Stone Anchors 198 17 Site Monitoring and Protection 163 Stock Anchors 199 Monitoring 163 Further Information 200 Protection 167 Further Information 169 Appendix 2: Guns 201 The Importance of Sea-Bed Recording 201 18 Archaeological Illustration 170 Identification of Material 202 Basic Drawing Equipment 170 Classification by Methods of Loading 204 Drawing Archaeological Material 171 Classification by Shape 204 Recording ‘By Eye’ 175 Inscriptions and Decoration 206 Recording Decoration and Projectiles, Charges and Tampions 208 Surface Detail 176 Recording and Illustrating Guns 209 Recording Constructional and Further Information 212 Other Detail 177 Post-Fieldwork Photography and Appendix 3: NAS Training Programme 213 Laser Scanning 178 An Introduction to Foreshore and Presenting a Range of Complex Underwater Archaeology 213 Information 178 NAS Part I: Certificate in Foreshore and Further Information 180 Underwater Archaeology 214 NAS Part II: Intermediate Certificate in 19 Post-Fieldwork Analysis and Archiving 181 Foreshore and Underwater Archaeology 214 Handling Material and Keeping NAS Part III: Advanced Certificate in Records 182 Foreshore and Underwater Archaeology 214 Post-Fieldwork Treatment of NAS Part IV: Diploma in Foreshore and Survey Work 182 Underwater Archaeology 215 Specialist Analysis 185 Further Information 215 Interpretation and Gathering Supporting Evidence From Other Sources 186 Glossary 216 Producing an Archaeological Archive 186 References and Further Reading 219 Further Information 188 Index 223 9781405175913_1_pre.qxd 5/7/08 6:24 PM Page viii List of Figures 2.1 The Dover bronze-age boat 3 10.1 A diver sketching a late ninetenth-century 2.2 The fifteenth-century Newport ship 4 shipwreck in Dor, Israel 72 2.3 Experimental archaeology: building a 10.2 A simple set-up for photographing finds replica log boat 9 using a vertical stand 74 2.4 Trials of the Loch Glashan replica 10.3 A vertically photographed wooden weaving log boat 9 heddle from the Armada wreck La 3.1 Post-fieldwork activity 12 Trinidad Valencera (1588) 75 4.1 Archaeological sites as part of a 10.4 Obliquely photographed wooden bellows settlement pattern 16 from the Armada wreck La Trinidad 4.2 Survival of clues on underwater sites Valencera (1588) 75 relative to dry sites 17 10.5 Important considerations for successful 4.3 An RNLI wreck chart for 1876–7 18 underwater photography 76 4.4 Site types: aerial photograph of a stone- 10.6 A 5 metre square photomosaic of ship built fish-trap at Airds Bay, Scotland 19 remains on the Duart Point wreck 78 4.5 Tree-rings viewed through a microscope 24 10.7 A photographic tower positioned on 4.6 Tree-ring sequence built up from trees a rigid site grid 79 in the same area 25 10.8 Photomosaics: formula to calculate 4.7 Typology: how it works 27 lens focal length and camera 4.8 Stratigraphy from above: the height necessary to give the sequence of events 27 required coverage 79 4.9 Stratigraphy: what it can reveal 28 10.9 Underwater use of a video camera 80 4.10 The importance of context and 11.1 The earth, showing latitude, longitude stratigraphy 28 and equator 84 4.11 Site-formation processes 29 11.2 The basis of the Universal Transverse 4.12 Re-used ship’s timbers in an open barn Mercator (UTM) projection 84 on the Turks and Caicos Islands 32 11.3 A scatter of shots showing precision 8.1 In situ recording: a diver’s recording form and accuracy 86 completed during excavation of the 11.4 Taking horizontal sextant angles 87 Mary Rose in 1982 56 11.5 How to use sextant angles (scribed 8.2 Planning contexts 59 on drafting film) 88 8.3 Harris matrix 59 11.6 Sextant angles: plotted geometrically 8.4 Section through a gully on the wreck of from baselines between charted El Gran Grifon (1588) 60 features 89 8.5 An archaeological database 62 11.7 A triangle of error, or ‘cocked hat’ 90 9.1 An eighteenth-century gravestone near the 11.8 The use of coastal features as transit River Tay in Perthshire showing a salmon marks to establish the position of a site 90 fisherman’s square-sterned coble 67 11.9 Accuracy of transits 91 9781405175913_1_pre.qxd 5/7/08 6:24 PM Page ix LIST OF FIGURES ix 11.10 Temporary transits formed by setting up 15.1 Excavation strategies: trench and test pits 136 paired ranging rods along a shore baseline 91 15.2 Probing to record sediment depths and 11.11 Surveying a submerged site in shallow water obstructions 136 using a shore-based EDM 92 15.3 Use of air or water probes 136 11.12 Differential GPS system with satellites, 15.4 Optimum place for tree-ring sampling 138 shore-based reference stations and 15.5 Taking a spot sample 139 in-boat mobile receiver 94 15.6 Column or monolith sampling from a 12.1 Towed diver search 97 section 140 12.2 Swimline (freeline) search 98 15.7 Excavating a wooden weaving heddle 12.3 The offset method in use (with on the Armada wreck La Trinidad metal detector) 99 Valencera (1588) 142 12.4 Jackstay (corridor) search 100 15.8 Excavation tools: the trowel and the 12.5 Circular search 101 paint brush 142 13.1 500 kHz sidescan sonar image of a 15.9 A conservator removing the surviving v-shaped fish-trap from the River section of a gunpowder barrel, excavated Barrow, County Wexford, Ireland 107 from the Spanish Armada wreck La 13.2 Sidescan sonar image of the Trinidad Valencera (1588) 143 SS Storaa (1943) 108 15.10 Excavation using airlift 144 13.3 Chirp and Boomer image from 15.11 Water-dredge operation 146 Strangford Lough, Northern Ireland 109 16.1 Teredo navalis (shipworm) 150 13.4 A two-dimensional profile and interpolated 16.2 A concretion recovered from the Duart timeslice of the Grace Dieu (1439) wreck, Point wreck (1653) site, Mull, Scotland 152 River Hamble, Hampshire, UK 110 16.3 An X-ray of the concretion shown in 13.5 Geophysics equipment: 1) magnetometer, figure 16.2 152 2) sidescan sonar, 3) sub-bottom 16.4 The Duart Point sword hilt shown in profiler, 4) ROV 112 figures 16.2 and 16.3 after conservation 152 14.1 Excavation plan of part of the Spanish 16.5 Excavating a small fragile object – a leather Armada wreck La Trinidad water-bottle – from the Armada wreck Valencera (1588) 115 La Trinidad Valencera (1588) 155 14.2 Representing the sea-bed using symbols 116 16.6 Raising a large organic object – a spoked 14.3 Radial method of survey 117 wooden wheel – from the Armada wreck 14.4 Recording the profile of a wreck using La Trinidad Valencera (1588) 155 vertical offsets from a horizontal datum 120 16.7 The leather water-bottle shown in 14.5 Offset method, including plotting results 121 figure 16.5 is brought to the surface 14.6 Ties/trilateration: survey and drawing and handed to the waiting conservator 155 up results 122 16.8 A pocket sundial with integrated 14.7 The principle of levelling to establish compass found on the wreck of relative heights/depths 124 the Kennemerland (1664) 161 14.8 Depth relative to a temporary benchmark 124 17.1 A covering of sandbags placed over 14.9 A simple clinometer 125 a fragile area on the Duart Point 14.10 A double-strung planning frame 125 (1653) wreck, Mull, Scotland 168 14.11 A diver taking DSM measurements 128 18.1 Archaeological illustration in practice 171 14.12 Braced quadrilateral (3-D survey) 129 18.2 Recording shape: tracing round an 14.13 Joining quads (3-D survey) 129 object with a set-square and pencil 173 14.14 Measuring between quads (3-D survey) 129 18.3 Recording shape by establishing a vertical 14.15 Good control-point network shapes datum and taking offset measurements 174 (3-D survey) 130 18.4 A radius template in use 174 14.16 Secondary points (3-D survey) 130 18.5 A radius chart in use 174 14.17 Poor control-point network shapes 18.6 Correct orientation of a pottery sherd (3-D survey) 131 when using a radius chart 175 14.18 Positioning detail points on features using 18.7 A simple pottery drawing 175 control points (3-D survey) 132 18.8 Thickness-gauge callipers in use 176 14.19 Surveying a submerged site in shallow 18.9 Archaeological illustration of a jug water using a shore-based ‘total station’ 133 complete with spout 176 9781405175913_1_pre.qxd 5/7/08 6:24 PM Page x x LIST OF FIGURES 18.10 Profile gauge in use 176 A2.2 Wrought-iron breech-loading tube gun: 18.11 Depiction of complex decoration terminology – a corresponding recording (‘rolled out’) 177 form is available on the NAS website 203 18.12 The drawing of a complex object – swivel A2.3 Breech-loading swivel-gun: terminology gun from La Trinidad Valencera (1588), – a corresponding recording form is with views and details selected to convey available on the NAS website 204 the maximum amount of information 177 A2.4 A small swivel-gun recovered from 18.13 Illustration of two pairs of brass dividers a Spanish Armada wreck off from the Dartmouth (1690) 178 Streedagh Strand, Ireland 205 18.14 Drawing of a more complex pot 178 A2.5 Plan and side view of a decorated cast- 18.15 Drawing of a boatbuilder’s tar brush bronze gun from the Spanish Armada from western Scotland 179 wreck La Trinidad Valencera (1588) 206 18.16 A render of the 3-D laser-scan data of the A2.6 A Tudor rose heraldic emblem from figurehead from HMS Colossus (1798) 179 one of the bronze guns from the 18.17 An orthographic view of the shaded 3-D Mary Rose (1545) 207 laser-scan data of the Mary Rose A2.7 The weight number on the breeching ring (1545) hull 180 reinforce on the Stirling Castle’s (1703) 19.1 A plan chest for the storage of plans demi-cannon, as shown in figure A2.13 207 and drawings 182 A2.8 Founder’s mark (Thomas Western), 19.2 An example of a site-location map 183 touch-hole and details of markings 19.3 Interpreted and ‘naturalistic’ representations on the first reinforce on the Stirling of the same section prepared for Castle’s (1703) demi-cannon, as shown publication 184 in figure A2.13 207 19.4 Representing topography with hachures A2.9 Detail of the broad arrow on the Stirling and contours 185 Castle’s (1703) demi-cannon, as seen in 19.5 One of the Mary Rose Trust organic stores 187 figure A2.13 207 19.6 The Mary Rose card file system 188 A2.10 Plain iron guns from the Armada wreck 20.1 A public talk during a NAS project El Gran Grifon (1588) 208 at Stourhead, Wiltshire, UK 190 A2.11 A drawing properly set out for publication 20.2 A team member being interviewed of a piece of ordnance – a cannon ferrier for television during work on the from a Spanish Armada Wreck off Mary Rose (1545) site 193 Streedagh Strand, Ireland 210 A1.1 Anchor terminology 200 A2.12 Rubbing taken from the top of the barrel A2.1 Cast ordnance: terminology – a of the swivel-gun shown in figure A2.4 211 corresponding recording form is A2.13 A demi-cannon from the wreck of the available on the NAS website 203 Stirling Castle (1703) 211

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