archaeological evidence for the consumption of tobacco and coffee in ottoman arabia

127 Pages·2010·4.07 MB·English

by  Aimee Bouzigard

ARCHAEOLOGICAL
 EVIDENCE
 FOR
 THE
 CONSUMPTION
 OF
 TOBACCO
 AND
 COFFEE
 IN

OTTOMAN
 ARABIA

by

Aimee
 C.
 Bouzigard

May
 2010

Under
 the
 Direction
 of
 Benjamin
 A.
 Saidel,
 PhD

Chair:

 Linda
 D.
 Wolfe,
 PhD

Major
 Department:

 Anthropology

This
 thesis
 is
 to
 examine
 the
 nature
 of
 the
 archaeological
 evidence
 for
 coffee
 and
 tobacco

consumption
 in
 Arabia
 during
 the
 Ottoman
 period
 (sixteenth
 through
 the
 early
 twentieth

centuries).

 The
 data
 used
 in
 this
 study
 are
 culled
 from
 survey
 projects
 carried
 out
 in
 Saudi
 Arabia

during
 the
 Comprehensive
 Survey
 Program
 (1976
 –
 1981).

 I
 have
 refined
 the
 dates
 of
 the
 tobacco

pipes
 (chibouks),
 which
 will
 allow
 for
 a
 finer
 grain
 chronology
 for
 the
 spread
 of
 coffee
 and
 tobacco

based
 on
 the
 material
 culture.

 Additionally,
 pottery
 parallels
 used
 in
 conjunction
 with
 the
 tobacco

pipe
 material
 will
 aid
 in
 refining
 the
 chronology
 for
 Ottoman-­‐period
 sites
 in
 northern
 Arabia.

 A

large
 portion
 of
 this
 project
 also
 involves
 an
 evaluation
 of
 the
 methodological
 issues
 facing

researchers
 who
 are
 attempting
 to
 study
 Ottoman-­‐period
 components
 in
 the
 Middle
 East,
 as

revealed
 in
 the
 gross
 survey
 reports
 from
 Saudi
 Arabia.

 A
 final
 facet
 of
 this
 project
 is
 to draw a link
between the artifacts associated with coffee and tobacco consumption, and the types of sites where they
are found. By distinguishing the site types associated with coffee and tobacco through the analysis of
archaeological finds, we can access a clearer picture of the distribution of those artifacts in Arabia that are
associated with coffee drinking and tobacco smoking in order to tell where and whom was engaging in
these activities.

ARCHAEOLOGICAL
 EVIDENCE
 FOR
 THE
 CONSUMPTION
 OF
 TOBACCO
 AND
 COFFEE
 IN

OTTOMAN
 ARABIA

A Thesis
Presented to
the Faculty of the Department of Anthropology
East Carolina University

In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirement for the Degree
Master of Arts in Anthropology

by
Aimee C. Bouzigard
May 2010
ARCHAEOLOGICAL
 EVIDENCE
 FOR
 THE
 CONSUMPTION
 OF
 TOBACCO
 AND
 COFFEE
 IN

OTTOMAN
 ARABIA

by

Aimee
 C.
 Bouzigard

APPROVED
 BY:

DIRECTOR
 OF
 THESIS:_______________________________________________________________________________

(Benjamin
 A.
 Saidel,
 PhD)

COMMITTEE
 MEMBER:______________________________________________________________________________

(Charles
 R.
 Ewen,
 PhD)

COMMITTEE
 MEMBER:______________________________________________________________________________

(Robert
 L.
 Bunger,
 PhD)

COMMITTEE
 MEMBER:______________________________________________________________________________

(Mona
 L.
 Russell,
 PhD)

CHAIR
 OF
 THE
 DEPARTMENT

OF
 ANTHROPOLOGY:________________________________________________________________________________

(Linda
 D.
 Wolfe,
 PhD)

DEAN
 OF
 THE
 GRADUATE

SCHOOL:______________________________________________________________________________________________

(Paul
 J.
 Gemperline,
 PhD)
TABLE
 OF
 CONTENTS

LIST
 OF
 TABLES
 AND
 ILLUSTRATIONS……………………………………………………………….......

 viii

CHAPTER
 1:
 INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………………………….

 1

  Purpose
 of
 Study……………………..…………………………………………………………………...

 1

  Chronological
 Terminology…………………………………………………………………………..

 2

  Hypotheses………………………………………………………………………………………………….

 3

History
 of
 the
 Arabian
 Peninsula
 from
 the
 Sixteenth
 through
 the
 Early

Twentieth
 Centuries,
 The
 Ottoman
 Period……………………………………………………

 3

Overview
 of
 Ottoman
 Archaeology
 in
 the
 Middle
 East……………………………………
 8

Saudi
 Arabian
 Attitudes
 Towards
 Ottoman
 Archaeology……………………………….
 10

CHAPTER
 2:
 HISTORY
 AND
 ARCHAEOLOGICAL
 SIGNATURE
 OF
 COFFEE
 AND

 TOBACCO
 CONSUMPTION
 IN
 THE
 MIDDLE
 EAST
 IN
 THE
 SIXTEENTH
 THROUGH

 THE
 EARLY
 TWENTIETH
 CENTURIES………………………………………………………………..

 13

  Introduction
 of
 Tobacco
 to
 the
 Middle
 East………………………………………………….

 13

  The
 Availability
 of
 Tobacco
 and
 Pipes
 in
 Arabia……………………………………………

 16

  Archaeology
 and
 the
 Consumption
 of
 Tobacco……………………………………………..

 18

  Early
 styles
 of
 pipe-­‐bowls
 in
 the
 seventeenth
 century………………………..

 24

  The
 variety
 of
 the
 eighteenth
 century………………………………………………..

 24

  The
 standardization
 of
 the
 nineteenth
 century…………………………………..

 26

  The
 end
 of
 clay
 tobacco
 pipes
 in
 the
 twentieth
 century………………………

 26

  Introduction
 of
 Coffee
 into
 the
 Middle
 East…………………………………………………..

 27

  The
 Availability
 of
 Coffee
 in
 Arabia………………………………………………………………

 29

  Archaeology
 and
 the
 Consumption
 of
 Coffee…………………………………………………

 31

CHAPTER
 3:
 THE
 COMPREHENSIVE
 SURVEY
 OF
 SAUDI
 ARABIA……………………………..

 39

  Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………………….

 39
The
 Comprehensive
 Survey………………………………………………………………………..

 40

  Comments
 on
 the
 Reports
 from
 Atlal………………………………………………………….

 49

  Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………………………

 51

CHAPTER
 4:
 ARCHAEOLOGICAL
 EVIDENCE
 FOR
 THE
 CONSUMPTION
 OF

 TOBACCO
 AND
 COFFEE
 IN
 OTTOMAN-­‐PERIOD
 SAUDI
 ARABIA…………………………..

 52

  The
 Assemblage…………………………………………………………………………………………

 61

  Central
 and
 Southwestern
 Provinces………………………………………………..

 62

  206-­‐48………………………………………………………………………………….

 63

  210-­‐15………………………………………………………………………………….

 64

  210-­‐48
 and
 210-­‐62………………………………………………………………..

 65

  Southwestern
 Province…………………………………………………………………….

 66

  217-­‐79………………………………………………………………………………….

 67

  Western
 Province…………………………………………………………………………….

 68

  210-­‐221………………………………………………………………………………..

 68

  Northwestern
 and
 Northern
 Provinces……………………………………………..

 70

  204-­‐157
 and
 205-­‐75……………………………………………………………...

 70

  Ar-­‐Rowdah
 North……………………………………………………………………………..

 71

CHAPTER
 5:
 REDATING
 THE
 PIPES
 AND
 THE
 PORCELAIN
 CUPS……………………………...

 73

  The
 Dates
 of
 Tobacco
 Pipes
 Found
 in
 Saudi
 Arabia………………………………………..

 75

  The
 Dates
 of
 Coffee
 Cups
 Found
 in
 Saudi
 Arabia……………………………………………

 80

CHAPTER
 6:
 DISCUSSION
 AND
 CONCLUSIONS…………………………………………………………

 87

  Site
 Structure……………………………………………………………………………………………….

 87

  Explanations
 for
 the
 Distribution
 of
 Tobacco
 Pipes
 and
 Coffee
 Cups……………….

 91
Role
 of
 the
 environment……………………………………………………………………

 91

  Role
 of
 the
 survey
 methods
 and
 recovery………………………………………….

 94

  Trafficked
 trade
 routes……………………………………………………………………..

 95

  Material
 culture
 associated
 with
 the
 use
 of
 tobacco

 and
 coffee
 imported………………………………………………………………………

 98

  Alternative
 smoking
 paraphernalia……………………………………………………
 99

  Methodological
 Considerations:
 Dating
 by
 Typology……………………………………

 100

  Conclusions………………………………………………………………………………………………...
 103

  Future
 Research………………………………………………………………………………………….
 104

REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
 105

APPENDIX

 A
 (copyright
 forms)…………………….………………………………………………………..
 116
TABLES

Table
 3.1

 Survey
 methodologies…………………………………………………………………………….
 45

Table
 4.1

 Survey
 reports
 containing
 Ottoman-­‐period
 artifacts………………………………..
 53

Table
 4.2

 Tobacco
 pipes
 recovered
 during
 Comprehensive
 Survey
 Program……………
 58

Table
 4.3

 Coffee
 cups
 recovered
 during
 Comprehensive
 Survey
 Program………………...
 60

Table
 5.1

 Tobacco
 pipe-­‐bowl
 parallels
 and
 dates…………………………………………………….
 76

Table
 5.2

 Coffee
 cup
 parallels
 and
 notes…………………………………………………………………
 81

ILLUSTRATIONS

Fig.
 1.1

 Map
 of
 the
 Ottoman
 Empire
 1881
 –
 1912…………………………………………………….

 5

Fig.
 2.1

 The
 chibouk
 and
 the
 European
 kaolin
 pipe…………………………………………………..

 20

Fig.
 2.2a

 Parts
 of
 the
 pipe-­‐bowl……………………………………………………………………………….

 21

Fig.
 2.2b
 Parts
 of
 the
 pipe-­‐bowl………………………………………………………………………………..
 22

Fig.
 2.3

 Pipes
 available
 in
 Rosetta
 during
 the
 French
 occupation
 of
 Egypt………………….
 25

Fig.
 2.4

 Coffee
 houses
 (a)
 Turkish
 (b)
 Damascene
 (c)
 Arabian…………………………………..
 30

Fig.
 2.5

 Coffee
 cups………………………………………………………………………………………………….
 32

Fig.
 3.1

 Map
 of
 Survey
 Provinces……………………………………………………………………………..
 42

Fig.
 6.1

 Map
 showing
 the
 distribution/site
 types
 where
 tobacco
 pipes

 and
 coffee
 cups

 were
 recovered………………………………………………………………...

 88

Fig.
 6.2

 Close-­‐up
 of
 sites
 with
 tobacco
 pipes
 and
 coffee
 cups
 in
 the

 Mecca-­‐Taif
 region……………………………………………………………………………………….
 89

Fig.
 6.3

 Physical
 map
 of
 Saudi
 Arabia………………………………………………………………………
 92

Fig.
 6.4

 Saudi
 Arabia,
 main
 regions
 and
 cities…………………………………………………………..
 93

Fig.
 6.5

 Map
 showing
 the
 proximity
 of
 recovery
 sites
 to
 major
 highways………………….
 94

Fig.
 6.6

 Pilgrim
 routes
 up
 to
 the
 late
 nineteenth
 century………………………………………….
 97
Chapter
 1:

Introduction

Purpose
 of
 Study

This
 project
 will
 determine
 the
 nature
 of
 the
 archaeological
 evidence
 for
 coffee
 and

tobacco
 consumption
 in
 Arabia
 during
 the
 Ottoman
 period
 (sixteenth
 through
 the
 early

twentieth
 centuries).

 The
 data
 used
 in
 this
 study
 are
 culled
 from
 survey
 projects
 carried

out
 in
 Saudi
 Arabia
 during
 the
 Comprehensive
 Survey
 Program
 (1976
 –
 1981),
 whose

reports
 are
 published
 in
 Atlal:
 The
 Journal
 of
 Saudi
 Arabian
 Archaeology.

 As
 part
 of
 this

project,
 I
 have
 refined
 the
 dates
 of
 the
 tobacco
 pipes,
 which
 will
 allow
 for
 a
 finer
 grain

chronology
 for
 the
 spread
 of
 coffee
 and
 tobacco
 material
 culture.

 Additionally,
 pottery

parallels
 used
 in
 conjunction
 with
 the
 tobacco
 pipe
 material
 will
 aid
 in
 refining
 the

chronology
 for
 Ottoman-­‐period
 sites
 in
 northern
 Arabia.

 A
 large
 portion
 of
 this
 project
 also

involves
 an
 evaluation
 of
 the
 methodological
 issues
 facing
 researchers
 who
 are
 attempting

to
 study
 Ottoman-­‐period
 components
 in
 the
 Middle
 East,
 as
 revealed
 in
 the
 survey
 reports

from
 Saudi
 Arabia.

 A
 final
 facet
 of
 this
 project
 is
 to draw a link between the artifacts
associated with coffee and tobacco consumption, and the types of sites where they are found. By
attempting to distinguish the site types associated with coffee and tobacco through the analysis of
archaeological finds, we can access a clearer picture of the distribution of those artifacts in
Arabia that are associated with coffee drinking and tobacco smoking in order to tell where and
whom was engaging in these activities. The archaeological evidence could provide interesting
insights to Muslim behavior in the Ottoman period with regards to the legality of coffee drinking
and tobacco smoking versus the actual, and at some time illegal, use of these substances.
We know from historical documentation about the use of coffee and tobacco in
urban areas; the archaeological record provides the evidence for the spread and
embeddedness of the consuming behaviors across all sectors and regions of the
empire. (Baram 1999: 140)

Chronological
 Terminology

The
 Ottoman
 period
 in
 the
 Middle
 East
 is
 sometimes
 referred
 to
 as
 the
 Late
 Islamic

period.

 For
 the
 purposes
 of
 this
 project,
 I
 am
 following
 the
 archaeological
 chronology

preliminarily
 established
 by
 Whitcomb
 (1978)
 during
 his
 analysis
 of
 Islamic
 material

culture
 recovered
 by
 the
 Survey
 Program
 from
 the
 al-­‐Hasa
 oasis
 region
 in
 the
 Eastern

province,
 supplemented
 by
 his
 later
 work
 on
 the
 chronology
 of
 medieval
 Islamic
 periods
 in

Jordan
 (1997).

 Whitcomb
 found
 that
 after
 the
 Early
 Islamic
 period,
 ceramic
 types
 continue

to
 be
 used
 in
 later
 periods,
 and
 thus
 while
 proving
 a
 cultural
 continuity,
 they
 make
 period

designations
 very
 difficult
 between
 the
 Middle
 and
 Late
 Islamic
 periods
 (Whitcomb
 1978:

98).

 The
 chronology
 he
 established
 (with
 a
 small
 modification
 of
 the
 Late
 Islamic
 II)
 is
 as

follows:
 the
 Early
 Islamic
 period
 (600
 –
 1000
 CE)
 corresponds
 roughly
 to
 the
 Umayyad
 and

Abbasid
 periods;
 Middle
 Islamic
 I
 (1000-­‐1200
 CE)
 covers
 the
 Fatimid
 and
 part
 of
 the

Crusader
 and
 Ayyubid
 periods;
 Middle
 Islamic
 II
 (1200
 –
 1400
 CE)
 is
 early
 Mamluk;
 Late

Islamic
 I
 (1400
 –
 1600
 CE)
 is
 late
 Mamluk-­‐early
 Ottoman;
 Late
 Islamic
 II
 (1600
 –
 [1900]

CE)
 corresponds
 to
 the
 Ottoman
 period
 (Walker
 1999:
 207).

 The
 Late
 Islamic
 periods
 are

the
 most
 relevant
 to
 this
 project,
 as
 they
 include
 the
 entire
 Ottoman
 period
 and
 are

characterized
 by
 the
 introduction
 of
 a
 number
 of
 imported
 ceramics,
 the
 first
 being
 Chinese

porcelains
 (Whitcomb
 1978:
 103).

 In
 general,
 the
 material
 culture
 of
 the
 Late
 Islamic

period
 reflects
 the
 increasingly
 strong
 interregional
 contacts
 of
 the
 day
 (Whitcomb
 1978:

104).

 However,
 it
 should
 be
 noted,
 whether
 this
 archaeological
 chronology
 holds
 true
 to

other
 areas
 within
 Saudi
 Arabia
 remains
 to
 be
 tested.

 This
 is
 the
 ongoing
 issue
 of

2