Aquinas's Ethics: Metaphysical Foundations, Moral Theory, and Theological Context

120 Pages·2009·5.93 MB·English

by  Rebecca Konyndyk DeYoung

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Aquinas's
Ethics
Metaphysical Foundations,
Moral Theory, and Theological Context
Rebecca Konyndyk DeYoung,
Colleen McCluskey, and Christina Van Dyke
University ofNotre DamePress
NotreDame, Indiana
xvi Abbreviations
Articlesincludenumberedobjectionstoathesis,apassagebeginning"On
thecontrary"(inLatin,sedcontra),apassagebeginning"Ireplythat,"and
specific numbered replies to the numbered objections. In the reference
systememployed here,"STIa.77+ad 3" refers to part I (the "a"in Ia is
.from Latin,prima),question 77,article4, reply toobjection3. Part II of
theSumma theologiae divides into two large sections, referred to as ST
IaIIae(section IofPartII; in Latin,primasecundae)andSTIIaIIae (sec
tionIIofPartII;inLatin,secundasecundae)."STIIaIIae.124-5replyand
ad 2" referstothe passage"I reply that" and thespecific reply toobjec
Introduction
tion2,insection IIofPartII,question 124,article5.
St.
ThomasAquinas(1224125-1274) isatoweringfigurein the
history ofphilosophy;few scholarscan rival either the breadthor the
depth ofhis intellectual pursuits. Above and beyond his independent
works (including,most.famously,theSummatheologiaeand theSumma
contragenti~es),Aquinasalso wroteextensivecommentarieson mostof
Aristotle'streatisesandonnumerousbooksofthe Bible.Inaddition,he
participatedactivelyintheintellectualdebatesofhisday,writingstrongly
againstphilosophicaland theologicaldoctrinesthathe thoughtwereer
roneous. His scholarlyaccomplishmentshavebeenrenowned in philo
sophicaland theologicalcirclesforover750years.
Aquinas's reputation for brillianceissomewhatdulled, however, by
hisreputationfortediousproseandmeticulousattentiontodetail.Ingen
eral, his style ofcareful argumentation, set in the question-and-answer
format thatepitom'.zeshigh medieval scholarship, is oftencaricatured
asconcernedprimarilywithabstractquestions,suchashowmanyangels
candanceontheheadofapin.'Yet,aswewillargueinthisbook,tothink
ofAquinas's philosophicalproject-and,inparticular,hisethics-asir
relevant to modern life is to miss its central point. When one takes the
time tofit thedifferentpiecesofhis thoughttogether,oneisrewarded
witharichlyintegratedpictureofthegenuinelyhappy humanlife.
I
I
2 Aquinas'sEthics Introduction 3
Whyisit,afterall,thattwopeoplecanliveonthesamestreet,work sakeofspiritualformation. Byjoiningthisorder,Aquinaswasconsciously
atthesamejob,andyetonepersonexperiencesconstantfrustrationand choosingtointegratetheworkofhisintellectualandspiritualcontem
anxietyinhislifewhiletheotherflourishes? Isitbettertobecomeama plationwithanactivelifeofpreachingandteaching.
rinebiologistoraday-careworker? Cananyonejustifybecomingapro ContemporaryreaderscanseethisintegrationinAquinas'sdeveloped
fessionalmusicianwhenpeoplearestarvingthroughouttheworld? How accountofhumanvirtue.Insteadoffocusingpurelyonatheoreticalun
arewetothinkabouttheultimatepurposeofourlives-how arewe, derstandingofthenatureofagoodmoralcharacter,Aquinasalsopro
for example,tobalancepersonalfulfillmentwiththedemandsofliving videspracticalinstructionforlivingwell.Whenhediscussesvirtuesand
incommunity? vicesintheSummatheologiae, forexample,headdressesnotjustabstract
Aquinas's accountofhuman nature and human flourishing turns questions,suchashowweshoulddefinevirtue,butalsopracticalissues,
outtoprovideameaningfulframeworkinwhichtoanswerpressinglife suchashowtoshowgratitudetowardsomeonewhodoesusafavor we
questions.Whilerecognizingthateachofuspossessesuniquetalentsand aretoopoortorepay.Thisdualconcernshowsuprepeatedlyinhisethi
shortcomings,hedescribesageneral pictureoftheflourishinglifethat calworksandunderscoreshiscommitmenttoputtingbeliefintoaction.
provesasprovocative,challenging,andattractivetodayasitfirstdidover
sevenhundredyearsago.Ourcentralgoal inthisbook istopresentthis
richpicturetoreaderswholackthetimeortechnicalexpertisetounder AQUINAS'S CONNECTION TO ARISTOTLE
taketheprojectthemselves.
Aquinas develops hisaccountofthegenuinely happy life within a ThestrategyofAquinas'sethicaltheorycloselymirrorsAristotle'sap
complex metaphysical and theological framework; thus,a large,partof proach in theNicomachean Ethics. Aristotle(384-322B.C.), whosework
ourtaskwillbetoexaminehisunderstandingofwhathumanbeingsare profoundlyinfluenced Aquinas'sthought,hasanexplicidypracticalaim
and howand why theyact. Withthisfoundation inplace, we'llbeahle inhisEthics: hewantstoexplaintopeoplewhatthetruenatureofhap
toproperlyappreciatehisconceptionof-thegoodlifehumanbeingsare pinessis,sothattheycanworktowardactuallylivingthehappylife.Ac
meanttolive. cord.ingtobothAristotleandAquinas,everyhumanbeingdesiresheror
Aquinas's own life underscores his beliefthat scholarly pursuits hisownhappiness,andallhumanbeingsdowhattheydoforthesakeof
can- andperhapsshould-havepracticalaswellasabstractorcontem becominghappy. Sincebothseehappinessastheendgoalofhumanlife
plativeresults.Whenhispolitically-mindedfamilypressuredhimtojoin and thefulfillmentofhuman nature,theyapproachethicsasthestudy
the highly respectedand well-established Benedictinemonasticorder, ofhowhumanbeingscanbestfulfill th'eirnatureandobtainhappiness.
Aquinasdidnorobjecttotheideaofareligiouscareerinandofitself. Ethicsthushasapracticalaswellasatheoreticalgoal.Itsdualpurpose
Instead ofchoosingthe Benedictines,however,he insistedon joining naturallyaffectshowweshouldundertakeitsstudy.Inthesamewaythat
therecentlyformedDominicanorder,areligiousorderwithconsiderably thepointofgoingtothedoctorwithapersistentmigraineisnotsimply
lessprestigeandaradicalsocialmission.Foundedin1217bySt.Dominic, tolearnmoreaboutthemigrainebuttoactivelyridoneselfofthepain,
aleaderwith astrongdesiretorevitalize thechurch'smission and to sothepointofreadingethicsandthinkingabouthowweshouldliveour
rescue itfrom religiousapathyand power-hungryclergy,theDomini livesistoactuallyliveourlivesdifferently-tolivethembetter.
canorderdedicateditselftoa lifethatcombinedquietprayerand con AquinasandAristotleagreeboththatthestudyofethicsshouldhave
templationwithactiveChristianservice.LiketheFranciscans(another apracticalgoalandthatthelifeofhappiness istheendgoalforhuman
recentlyfounded religiousorder),theDominicansservedasitinerant beings.Becausethey beginwithdifferingmetaphysicalandtheological
teachersand preachers,explicitlypursuingintellectual formationforthe commitments, however,theydiverge when theyapproach thenature of
4 Aquinas'sEthics Introduction 5
!
i,1 thisultimateend.Aristotlestressesourstatusasrationalanimalsandde gumentandAquinas'streatmentofit,wecanseehowAquinassimulta
"I,' scribesthehappyliferatherbroadlyas,llthelife'ofactivityexpressingrea neouslyacceptsandtransformsAristotelianclaimswithinadeeplyChris
I
i)
'i,i son well."2Aquinas,ontheotherhand,emphasizesourstatusas beings tiancontext.
createdbyGod; thepointoftheethical lifefor Aquinasis,correspond IntheNicomacheanEthics1.7,Aristotlemakesaconnectionbetween
i!
ingly,notjustalifeofflourishingrationalitybut,morespecifically,alife something'snatureanditsfunction. Heclaimsthateverythinghasafunc
ofintimateunionwith God. Thus, whileAristotleishighly interested tionoracharacteristicactivity.Thefunction ofaknife,for example,is
inmoraleducationandcharacterformation, Aquinasseesthedeeper "tocue'Thefactthataknife'sfunctioniscuttingishardlyaccidentalto
purposeofmoral education and characterformation aspreparing us itsbeingaknife; rather,athing'scharacteristicactivity relatesdirectly
for unionwithGod.Aristotlebelievesthathavingtherightmoralchar toitsnature. Broadlyspeaking,whatathingisexplainswhatthatthing
acterisnecessaryfortheflourishinghumanlife,andthattherightuse properlydoes. So,for example,thefactthataknife'sessencejustis'lcut_
ofreasonwillshowuswhatcountsastherightsortofmoralcharacter. tingtool"accountsfor thefactthatthefunctionofaknifeisl'tocut."
AquinasbelievesthatwearecreatedinGod'simage,andthatweflourish Human beings, too, havea function, one thatis best understood by
mostwhenourlikenessisclosesttothatimage-thatis,when wemost referencetotheirnature.AccordingtoAristotle,humansarerationalani
closelyresembleGodinthewaysappropriatetohumanbeings. mals.Theyareanimalsinsofarastheyareliving,breathing'physicalcrea
Aswedemonstratethroughoutthisbook,Aquinas'scentralproject tures,buttheydifferfromallotheranimalsintheirabilitytocognize
inhisethics isgrounded inthesemetaphysicaland theologicalbeliefs. thatis,in their rationalabilities. This understandingofhuman nature
Indeed,oneofthemoststrikingfeatures ofAquinas's scholarshipis its givesusthekeytoidentifyingthehumanfunction:since,bynature,an
conscioussynthesisofAristotelianphilosophywithhisChristianbeliefs. animal livesa lifeofactivity(perceiving with itssenses,seekingfood,
Heissometimessaidtol'baptizeAristotle;'butwhatAquinasdoesinhis shelter,etc.)andsince,bynature,arationalbeingengagesinintellectual
independentworks(suchasSummatheologiae)goesmuchdeepe~than cognition,thefunctionofarationalanimalmustbe'lalifeofactivityex
sprinklinga fewChristiansentimentsoveragenerallypagansystem; pressingreason:'Thus,thecharacteristicactivityofa human being
rather,histheologicalcommitmentspermeatehisphilosophicalsystem. theactivitythatfully captureswhatitis tobe human-isnot justac
BykeepingAquinas'sChristianbeliefsfirmlyinmind,wewillbetterun tivitycommontootheranimalsbutactivitythatspecificallyemploysour
derstand threecentralcomponentsofhisphilosophy:themetaphysicsof rationalcapacities.
hisaccountofhumannature,thetheoryofactionhedevelopsonthebasis AlthoughgroundedinAristotle'smetaphysical beliefs,thisdescrip
ofthatmetaphysics,andhisethicaltheory.With,thisapproach,readers tionofthehumanfunctionalsohasdeepimplicationsforhisethics.Aris
canappreciatethefull richnessandvalueofAquinas'sthought. totleholds thatathing'svirtue-itsexcellence-necessarilyinvolves
TodemonstratewhywebelieveaproperunderstandingofAquinas's thatthing'sperformingitsfunctionwell. (Aristotle'sclaimhereisameta
philosophyrequiresitsbeingseenaspartofthislargerpicture,itisuseful physicalone:tosayaknifeisexcellentorvirtuous insofarasitcuts well
toturn toSummatheologiaeIaIIae,questions 1-5.Thesefive questions, istosaythatitisagoodknife,notthatitisamorallygoodknife.)'Athing
commonlyreferredtoasthetreatiseon happiness,area primeexample isexcellentpreciselywhenitdoesagood jobincarryingoutitscharac
ofhowAquinasactivelyintegrateshistheologicalbeliefswithanAris teristicactivity.Aknife'sfunctionistocut,andsoitsvirtueorexcellence
totelianmetaphysicalandethicalsystem.Overthecourseoftheseques consists in itsactively cuttingwelL In the same way,since the human
tions, Aquinas addresses the opening book ofAristotle's Nicomachean function involvesalifeofa~tivityexpressingreason,humanvirtue
Ethics,abookthatculminateswithAristotle'sfamousfunctionargument humanexcellence- consistSinperformingthatfunction well. (Inthis
forhumanhappiness.Byexaminingbrieflyboththeoriginalfunctionar- connection,it is importantto remember that reasoningitselfcountsas
6 Aquinas'sEthics Introduction 7
an action.) Thus, our excellenceconsists not merely in employing our then,hegoesbeyondAristotleinarguingthatwhatitmeansforustolive,
rational capacitiesbutin employingthemwell. "thelifeofactivityexpressingreasonwell"needstobeunderstood inthe
AristotlegoesonintheEthicstolinkvirtuewithhumanhappiness. contextofourrelationshiptotheCreator. Inparticular,Aquinasclaims
Thehighestgood,heclaims,ishappiness.Moreover,thegoodofahuman thatourexcellenceconsistsintheactivityofknowingandlovingGod.
beingis hisorher happiness,and what'sgoodfor ahuman beingis to Thus, when Aristotle identifies happinessas thehighestgood and '
begoodatthehumanfunction. Thismightatfirstseempuzzling,butif ourultimateend,Aquinasconcurs-andthen heidentifiesthathighest
one'sfunctionfollows directly from one's nature, thenperformingthat good withGod. Again,when Aristotlearguesthattheactivityofhap
function actualizesthatnature;thebetteryouareatyourfunction, the pinessconsistsinthefullestexpressionoEourrationalpowers,Aquinas
moreyoufulfill yournature. Thus, theredoesseem tobeaclearsense agrees-andthenheexplains thatthefullestexpressionofour rational
inwhichbeinggoodatthehumanfunction-livingalifeofactivityex powersinvolvesboththecognitionofourultimateendand theproper
pressingreason-isgoodforyou.Whenyouaregoodatit,youexistfully responsetothatknowledge. Forhim,theactivityofhumanhappiness
astheverysortofthingyouare.Youactualizeallofyournaturalabilities consistsbothinourcognitionofGod,ourultimateend,andinourap
inthebestpossibleway.Thisradicalfulfillmentofyournatureishappi propriatereactiontothatultimateend-namely,love.Theactivityof
ness,andso,Aristotleconcludes,happinessforhumanbeingsisitselfthe humanhappinessthusmaximizesournatureascreatedrationalbeings
lifeofactivityexpressingreason well;or,as healsoputs it, happinessis byputtingourdistinctivelyhumancapacitiestotheirbestpossibleuse.
i
thelifeofactivityexpressingvirtue.4 SincehumanbeingsareuniqueamonganimalsbybeingcreatedinGod's
Aquinas fundamentally agrees with Aristotle both thathuman be image,bypossessingintellectandwill,perfecthumanhappinessinvolves
[i
ingsarerationalanimalsandthatthehumanfunctioncanbeproperlyun knowingGodthroughOurintellectsandlovingGodwithourwills.
J
I derstoodaslivingthelifeofactivityexpressingreason.Healsoagreesthat ThisbriefglanceatAquinas'sinterpretationofthefunction argu
i
II' humanexcellenceconsists inperformingthat function well. Heholds, mentdemonstratesbothhowhisethicalsystemdependsonhistheoriesof
however,thattheseclaims need tobefurtherunderstood inthecontext humannatureand humanactionsand howAquinasfreely directsAris
;:!
ofourstatusascreated beings. In the prologue tohis treatiseon hap totle'sbasicphilosophicalpreceptstowardanexplicitlyChristianend.It
piness, Aquinasstates that human beings arecreated in the imageof alsogivesusabasicideaoftheflourishinghumanlifeasheunderstandsit.
':'1 God.Thisfactisessential tounderstandingtheirnature,heclaims,since
ji
,I "humanbeingsare said tobemade in theimageofGod,where'image'
(I
signifies'intellectualbeingwhopossessesbothfreechoiceandpowerover HAPPINESS AS THE END OF HUMAN NATURE
I
itsactions.'"Whatitmeansfor ustobecreated inGod'simage,accord AND HUMAN ACTIONS
ingtoAquinas,is,first and foremost, thatwepossessintellect,will,and
theresultingabilitytoactonourownpower.ThislinktotheCreatorfu.r Humanbeingsarenotoriousfor failingtoflourish,however. Infact,
therexplainswhyourfunction involvesbothreasoningwellandacting evenifwehadenormousamountsoftime,energy,and moneytodevote
onthebasisofthatreasoning.Wehaveintellectsandwills,capacitiesthat tosatisfyingourwantsandneeds,fewofuswouldcountashappyonei
allowustodiscoverwhatourpowerstoactareintendedforandhowwe therAristotle'sorAquinas'sstandard.Partoftheproblem,asbothschol
aremeanttoact.Inshort,weareteleologicalbeings,createdbyGodwith arswouldbequicktoobserve,isourignoranceofwhatourendactually
aparticularfunction and foraparticularpurpose. is. There is muchmore to the storyofhuman misery,however,and an
II AlthoughAquinasagreeswithAristotle'sbasicmetaphysicaland integrated readingofAquinas's thought on human nature and action
I
ethicalclaimsconcerningthehumanfunction,excellen~e,andhappiness, can provide asurprisingly cogentexplanation for our unhappiness. In
iii
8 Aquinas'sEthics Introduction 9
particular,hisaccountofouractionsastheend-productofacomplexse canthinkofthisasthemechanicsofaction: how Aquinasaccountsfor
riesofinteractionsbetweentheintellectandthewillcanhelpusseemore thefactthathumanactionsareproducedinthefirstplace. Understand
clearly!:>othhowweoftenfall shortoffulfillingourownnatureandthe ingthemechanicsofactionenablesustoappreciatewhatitistoperform
consequencesthishasforourmorallife.Justasim~ortantly, itcanhelp goodactionsandhowactiongoeswrong,whichisthefocusofchapter5.
usunderstandhowAquinasbelieveswecanbecomerightagain-with Finally,inchapter6,weconsiderthefreedomofhumanaction.Freedom'
ourselves,withothers,andwithGod. isanimportantconditionformoralappraisal;ordinarilywedonotthink
that individualsshould beheld accountable for theiractionsifitturns
outthattheydidnotperformthoseactionsfreely. Humanfreedom also
L
presentourreadingofAquinas'sethicswithinitsoriginalphilosophical generatescertain tensions withothercommitmentswithin Aquinas's
andtheologicalcontext,wehavedividedthisbookintothreemainparts: ethics-theefficacyofgrace,for example.Thus,bothchapters5and6
oneaddressinghismetaphysics,oneexamininghisactiontheory,andthe set thestage for understandingAquinas'sethical theory, which is the
lastshowinghowAquinasbelievesvirtue,law,andgracefittogetherin focus ofpart3.
theflourishinghum~nlifeofhappiness.5Aswewillsee,tofullycompre Inthislastpart(chapters7-9)weexaminethreeintegratedelements
hendhisethicaltheory weneed tounderstand whyAquinascharacter ofAquinas's moral thought-virtue, law, andgrace-in order to un
izesproperlyhumanactionsasinteractionsbetweenintellectandwill.To derstandhisconceptionofhumanflourishing.First,weaddresstheway
appreciatehisdescriptionsoftheseinteractions,however,wemustbegin virtues perfectthehumancapacitiesthatareessentialtoflourishingand
Ii' withhisaccountofthenatureofhumanbeingsasrationalanimals,cre showhowperfectioninvirtueunitesuswithGod.OurunionwithGod,
atedintheimageofGod. for Aquinas,isarelationshipmodeledonAristotelianfriendship,arela
Forthis reasonthefirstchapter laysoutthemetaphysical founda tionshipbasedongoodnessofcharacterandashared loveofthegood.
tionsofAquinas'saccountofhumannature,focusingontheparticular Thislove,whichAquinascallscharity(caritas), isanactivityspecificto
nichethathumanbeingsoccupyinthecontinuum betweenpureactu human beingsand other persons(suchasGodand theangels), in that
ality(God)andpurepotentiality(primematter).Inthesecondchapterwe itrequiresintellectandwil1.6Second,weexaminethewaythatlawand
movetoacloserdiscussionofhumannature.WeexaminehowAquinas's grace,ratherthanstandingapartfrom virtue,areanintegralpartofthis
claimsthatwearecompositesofmatterandformandthatwearephysi pictureofhumanmoralformation.Lawandgraceshowushowandwhy
I; calbodieswithimmaterialintellectspresentsapictureofhumannature divineagencyisnecessaryfor ustoreachourultimateend,butina way
inwhichourphysicalityisessentialtous-inwhichhumanbeingsare thatleavesroom forourfreedom.Finally, throughastudyofa particu
:\, livingbodies.Finally,inchapter3weturntoAquinas'saccountofhuman larvirtueandvice,wedemonstratehowAquinas'stheologicalcommit
d capacities,sincewhathumanbeingsarerelatescloselytowhattheycan mentsand,inparticular,thecentralityofthetheologicalvirtueofcharity
:1 do. ThemostimportantcapacitiesforOUf"purposesare,ofcourse,intel shapeboththecontentandpurposeofhisethicalwork.
lectandwill,andsopartI ofthisbookconcludeswithadiscussionof Itisourhopethatbytheendofthisbook,readerswill understand
thosetwocapacities. Aquinas'sethicaltheorywithinitsoriginalcontext;furthermore,wehope
Inpart2 (chapters4-6)webuildonthispictureofintellectandwill thatourreaderswillbedrawntoshareourappreciationforboththeuse
bylookingatAquinas'scomplexandinterestingaccountofhumanac fulnessandtheappealofAquinas'saccountofthegood life.
tions.Inchapter4weconsiderwhyweperformanyactionsatall-that One further introductory remark is inorder: given Aquinas'sstat
il
I:)', is,weexaminetheultimategoalorpurposeofouractions.Nextwelook ureinthehistoryofphilosophyandhisthoroughtreatmentoftopicsof
I,: '
atwhatAquinasthinkswe aredoingwhen we performan action. We perennial interestto professionalsas well as nonprofessionals in both
1
_..,~~
10 Aquinas'sEthics
philosophyand theology, itshouldcomeasnosurprisethattheexami
nationofthethreecentralareasofhisworkaddressed inthisbookcon
stitutesanindustry initself. Whilenoonecanexpecttodofull justice
toAquinas'sthoughtwithoutaddressingthis richand complexsecond
aryliterature,wehavemadeadeliberatedecisionnottoengagethatlit
eraturedirectlyhere.Eachofusisconversantwith theappropriatelit
erature,andithasinfluencedourowninterpretationsofAquinas'stexts
'Part One
insignificantways-wayswehaveexplicitlyaddressedelsewhere.For
the purposes ofthis work, however, we have chosen to focus on our
Human Nature
ownexplicationsofAquinas'sviews (especially thosefound inhismost
famous text,Summatheologiae) inorder togive the readeranappreci
ationfor thebreadth,depth,internal cohesiveness,andultimatepracti
calityofAquinas'saccount.Wehaveavoidedthekindsofdistractions
thatwouldnaturallyariseinaprojectthatstrovebothtoprovideasub
stantiveinterpretationofAquinas'sethicaltheory-includingitscom
plexfoundations-and toaddress themanycontroversial issues that
occurinthesecondaryliterature.Ofcourse,sophisticatedreaders,:"illre
alizethatourelucidationisnottheonlyalternative; weencouragethese
readerstopursuefurtherstudyboth ofAquinas'sown textsand ofthe
voluminoussecondaryliterature.Infact,ifthisbookleadstosl:lchstudy,
wewillconsiderthatanequallywelcomeresultofourworkhere.
Giventhisapproach,weexpectthatthisvolumewillproveespecially
useful tothosereaderswhoareencounteringAquinas for thefirst (or
perhaps thesecond) time.Nevertheless,wealsohopethatexpertsinthis
areawillfind ourbookinterestingand relevantfor theirownpurposes.
Whileourapproachleavesopenexactlyhowwerespondtointerpretive
debatesin thewiderliterature, we trustthatourofferingprovidesfood
forthoughtevenfor thosethoroughlyconversantwithAquinas'sviews.
I
'II
'I
I,
I:;:
j:'
one
The Metaphysics
of Human Nature
,,i~
i
Lequestionofwhoweare-ofwhatweare-liesattheheartof
d
" Aquinas'saccountofhappiness.Wemustunderstandwhathumanbeings
-ii'
I" areinordertoseewhattheycando,andknowwhattheyareableto00
\'~-'
j:'i beforewecanappreciatehowtheyactuallyact.Only whenwegraspthe
i.;'
inner workings ofhumanactions, moreover, can we fully comprehend
i
howand whyweshouldact-thatis,thebestsortoflifewecanlead.
In this chapter we examine the placeofhuman beings in the uni~
II
verseasawhole.Wearerational animals,Aquinasclaims,buthoware
I
wetounderstand this? Whatdoes itmeantoberational,andwhatdif
I: ferencedoesitmakethatweareanimalswithreasoningcapacities?The
fact thatweare intellectiveorganisms possessesenormoussignificance
for Aquinas'sconceptionofhumannatureandofhumanflourishing.
AccordingtoAquinas,allofrealityisorderedinanelaborate"hierar
chy ofbeing" with God at the top. Human beings alone possess both
physicalbodiesandimmaterialintellects;inthehierarchywebridgethe
gapbetween materialand immaterialcreatures. Inanimportantsense,
weliveintwoworlds: thephysicalworldofrocksand treesandtheim
material worldoftheintellect.Gettingclearonhuman naturethusre
quiresacloserlookatthehierarchyofbeinginordertounderstand the
place occupied by bodies and intellects in the broadercontextofGod's
'3
14 Aquinas'sEthics TheMetaphysicsofHumanNature 15
*
natureandGod'srelationtocreation.Aswewillsee,thestructureofthe turefrom God,andeverythingfulfillsitsnatureonlywhenitcomesinto
hierarchyofbeinggivesusinsightintohumanbeingsbothona"species" rightrelationwithGod.
level-asmembersofacommonspecies, possessingthesameessential This central beliefcan be seen in the structure of Aquinas's best
nature-andonanindividual level,ascreatureswhoactualizethises knownwork,theSummatheologiae, inwhichGodisboththebeginning
sentialnatureindifferentwaysand tovaryingdegrees. and theend ofthediscussion;God isthatwhichexplains theexistence,
status,andfunction ofeverythingelse.2Thus, Aquinas begins PartIof
theSummawithadiscussionofGod'snature,movingontoaddresshow
THE HIERARCHY OF BEING created beingssuchasangels,materialsubstances,and humansall need
tobeunderstoodasproceedingfrom God. In PartII Aquinas concen
Aquinasbelievesthateverythingthatexistshasaplaceintheuni tratesonthespecialcaseofhumanbeings;heexplainshowhumanac
verse,andthatitsplacefollowsdirectlyfrom thatthing'srelationtoGod. tions, natural law, virtue, and graceall playa rolein the fulfillmentof
Insayingthis,ofcourse,hedoesnotmeanthateverythinghasaparticu ourultimateend;whichistomakeourwaybacktotheCreator. PartIII
larlocation in the universe. Rather, he means that every existingthing (leftincompleteatAquinas'sdeath)addressesthatwaybacktoGodand
fits inaspecialwayintoalargerschema,andthatGodisresponsiblefor focusesontheaspectsofGod'snaturefor whichweneeddivinerevela
thisschema,orhierarchy. In hisview,human beingsoccupyaparticu tion,theworkofChristandthespecificpracticesoftheChristianchurch
larlyinterestingplaceinthishierarchy(insofaraswealonepossesschar throughwhichGodexercisessalvificcausality,suchasbaptismandthe
acteristicsofbothmaterialandimmaterialcreatures),huteverycreature Eucharist. As he makesclear throughouttheSumma, Aquinasbelieves
hasaspecialrelationtoGod,andeverycreaturehasaparticularplacein thathumannaturecanneverbefully understoodapart from God,and
the hierarchy. Tosee what is mostinterestingabout thehuman case, thatwewillneverbecontentuntilwerealizeourplaceinrelationtoGod
firstweneedtofocusnotontheuniqueaspectsofournaturebutrather andourdependenceonGod.
onhowAquinasframesthatnatureinthelargercontextofthehierarchy Humannaturethusneeds tobeunderstood,first and foremost, in
ofbeing.' termsofourplaceinthegeneralstructureoftheuniverse.Aquinasbe
Itisessential tonotethatallcreatureshavetheirplaceinthehierar lieves thatthefunction ofwisdomistoorderthings.3Thatis,rational
chyfrom theirrelationtoGod,and thatall thingsdependonGod both beingsarenaturallydisposedtostructuretheworldaroundthem. Beings
fortheircomingintoexistenceandfortheircontinuingtoexist..Accord thatre~sonwell,moreover-wisebeings-donotstructureororder
ingtoAquinas,thecreatorofthecosmosisnotanimpersonalforce that things haphazardly; they order thingswell. Thus, it should come as no
merelyputintomotiontheprocessthatresultedinourworld. Neither surprisethatGod,thesupremelyrationalandperfectlywiseBeing,would
isGodapersonalhutdisinterestedartisanwhocraftedtheuniverseand produceahighlystructured,complexlyordereduniverseinwhichevery
thenleftittoitsowndevices,likeadivinewatchmakerorhomebuilder. thinghasitsproper place. Itshouldcomeas nosurprise, either,thathu
Instead,Godisanall-powerful,all-knowing,andcompletelygoodBeing mans,whoarecreatedinGod'simage,sharethisaffinity fororder,and
who remains intimatelyinvolvedincreation,constantlyworkingfor thatweflourishwhenweorderthings-includingourselves-well.
itsgood. God istheAlphaand theOmega- thebeginningandendof Aquinasidentifiestwocentralorganizingprinciplesfor thehierar
everythingthatis,thatwas,andthatwillbe.Inotherwords,Godisboth chyofbeing:actualityandpotentiality.Fromangelstomushrooms,from
thefirstcauseofallthingsthatexistandtheirfinalend,theverypurpose tigerstogranite,allthingsfitintoawonderfullycomplexcontinuumor
fortheirexistence.AquinasendorsesAugustine'sfamoussentimentthat ganized in terms ofthese twO principles. As we will see, theactuality/
ourheartsare restlessuntiltheyrestinGod:everythingreceives its na- potentialitydistinction sets God and prime matter as theendpoints of
I
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I6 Aquinas'sEthics TheMetaphysicsofHumanNature 17
thiscontinuum;4Aquinas'scharacterizationoftheseendpointsalsohelps thing'splace inthehierarchyisdetermined byitspossession (orlack)of
usunderstandhumannaturemoreclearly. certainkeycapacit~es. Thethreemostrelevantsetsofcapacities,ordered
Itmightseemstrange atfirst to think ofmushrooms and tigersas from least togreatest importance,are afamiliar trio in the history of
fallingatdifferentpointson acontinuum thatrangesfrom purepoten philosophy:vegetativeornutritivepowers,sensorypowers,andintellec
tialitytopureactuality.YetforAquinas,thisisanaturalresultoftheway tivepowers.
hethinksofthedifferencesbetweenspecies.FollowingAristotle,heiden Nutritivepowersare the lowest-level capacitiesofthethree; they
tifiesaspeciesasaclassofbeings whopossessthesameessentialnature. arepowerscommontoall(physical)livingthings,and Aquinasclaims
When we "carve realityatthe joints"-whenwepickoutthenatural thatitisbetter tohavevegetative life than merely toexist,whereheis
kindsthatthingsfall into-wearepickingoutspecies.5So,forexample, thinkingof"life"primarilyintermsofactivity.loAmushroom'scapacity
all individual human beings countas members ofthe samespecies in for takinginfood, growing, and producingothermushrooms,for in
virtueofhavingthesameessence,namely,"rationalanimality."Ifone stance,placesitinthehierarchyaboveachunkofgraniteandapoolof
imagines thehierarchyofbeingasaladderthatstretchesfrom God water,neitherofwhicharecapableofsuchdirected movement.Ingen
all the waydown topurepotentiality, then the rungsoftheladderare eral,livingthingsfall higheronthehierarchythannonlivingthings.On
madeupofnaturalkinds,orspecies.6Individualthingsoccupyaparticu Aquinas's viewit is alsobetter, however, tohave sense perceptionand
larplaceonthehierarchyonlybyvirtueoftheirmembershipinaspecies. thecorrespondingability tomoveoneselftowardoraway from objects
Anindividualtiger,forinstance,sharesarungonlywithothertigersand ofperceptionthanitismerelytohavethecapacityforgrowthandnutri
notwithmushroomsorangels;eachspeciesoccupiesadistinctrungof tion. Thus,atiger'scapacityfor smellingtheantelope,spottingitmov
ingthrough thegrass,andchasingitdowngives ita higherplacein the
theladderofbeing.
Whatplacesonespecieshigherorlowerthananotheronthishier hierarchythanthemushroom.Ingeneral,thetigerisabletoengagewith
and respond totheworldarounditmorefully than themushroomcan;
archyofbeingis, in short, theextent towhich thatspeciesmoreorless
closelyresemblesthefullyactualGod. AccordingtoAquinas,onlyGod inthissense,itexistsmorefully.
Aquinasholds,moreover,thatthecreaturescapableofengagingwith
exists necessarily. Neither a mushroom nor a tiger nor an angel could
theworldmostfullyareintellectivebeings,sinceintellectivecreaturescan
existapartfrom God,andsonocreatureisactual inthesense thatGod
knowand love thebeingsaround them in wayssimilar, inrelevantre
is.Nevertheless,eachcreaturecanreceive "participatedexistence"(that
spects,toGod'sknowledgeand love. For this reason,itisbetter tohave
is,itcanreceiveexistencedirectlyfrom God)toacertainextent-anex
thecapacityfor intellectivethoughtthansimplytohavethecapacityfor
tentdeterminedbythenaturalcapacitiesuniquetothespeciesofwhich
senseperceptionand/orgrowthandnutrition.l1 AccordingtoAquinas,
itisamember. InAquinas'swords, "Participatedexistenceislimited to
infact,intellectivecognitionissofarsuperiortonutritionandsenseper
thecapacityofwhatparticipatesinit."?Thatis,aspecies'uniquesetof
ceptionthatonlylower-levelintellects-only humanbeings,asitturns
capacitieslimits theextenttowhich its individual memberscan partici
out-evenneedtheothertwosetsofcapacitiesinordertofunction. In
pateinGod'sexistence. IftigersareclosertoGodonthehierarchythan
tellectivecapacitiesentailagreaterdegreeofsimilaritytoGodand,there
mushrooms,theexplanationisthattigerspossessasetofcapacities that
fore, ahigherdegreeofactuality;thus, intellectivebeingsbelonghigher
allowthemtoparticipatemorefully inexistencethanmushroomscan.
Buthowarewe to understand theclaim thata thing'scapacities uponthehierarchythannon-intellectivebeings.12
Thisgeneralpointaboutthestructureofthehierarchyofbeingbe
limititsexistence?8 Inbrief, Aquinasholds thatsomecapacitiesareof
comesclearer,perhaps,ifwerecognizethenaturalrelationAquinassees
ahigherorderthanothers,9andthatacreaturewithlower-orderedca
betweenactualityandperfection~InLatinthewordper/cetio, commonly
pacitiesexistsless fully thanacreature with highercapacities.Thus,a
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