Aquaculture Sourcebook: A Guide to North American Species

316 Pages·1993·10.607 MB·English

by  Edwin S. Iversen, Kay K. Hale (auth.)

AQUACULTURE
SOURCEBOOK
A Guide to North American Species
AQUACULTURE
SOURCEBOOK
A Guide to North American Species
Edwin S. Iversen
and
Kay K. Hale
AnAVI Book
Published by Van Nostrand Reinhold
New York
An AVIBook
(A VI is an imprint of Van Nostrand Reinhold)
Copyright © 1992 by Van Nostrand Reinhold
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1s t ed ition 1992
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 92-12536
All rights reserved. No part of this work covered by the copyright hereon may be reproduced
or used in any form or by any means-graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including photo
copying, recording, taping, or information storage and retrieval systems-without written
permission of the publisher.
Manufactured in the United States of America
Published by Van Nostrand Reinhold
115 Fifth Avenue
New York, New York 10003
Chapman and Hall
2-6 Boundary Row
London, SE 1 8HN, England
Thomas Nelson Australia
102 Dodds Street
South Melbourne 3205
Victoria, Australia
Nelson Canada
1120 Birchmont Road
Scarborough, Ontario MIK 5G4, Canada
16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 I
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Iversen, Edwin S.
Aquaculture sourcebook: a guide to Nonh American species / by Edwin S. Iversen and
Kay K. Hale.
p. cm.
"An AVI book."
Includes bibliographical references (p. ) and index.
ISBN-13: 978-1-4684-1430-1
1. Aquaculture-Nonh America-Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Hale, Kay K. II. Title.
SH33.I94 1992
639.8'097-dc20 92-12536
crp
ISBN-13: 978-1-4684-1430-1 e-ISBN-13: 978-1-4684-1428-8
001: 10.1007/978-1-4684-1428-8
Contents
Preface page ix
1 Introduction 1
Sources of Aquacultural Information 2
About This Book 3
Aspects of Good Aquacultural Planning 12
2 U.S., Canadian, and Mexican Aquaculture 15
U.S. Aquaculture 15
Early Public Aquaculture: Extensively Augmenting Wild Stocks 15
More Recent Public Aquaculture 17
Private U.S. Farming 18
Future of Aquaculture 20
Canadian Aquaculture 23
Aquacultural History 23
Current Status of Aquaculture 25
Outlook for the Future 27
Mexican Aquaculture 28
Geography and Habitats 28
Status of Aquaculture 29
Future of Aquaculture 32
3 Species for Human Food 35
Plants 35
Vegetable Hydroponics 35
Algae [Microalgae, Macroalgae] 36
Invertebrates 38
Arthropods/Crustaceans [Crabs, Crayfish, Lobsters, Shrimps/Prawns] 38
Echinoderms [Sea Urchin] 74
v
vi CONTENTS
Mollusks 76
Bivalves [Clams, Mussels, Oysters, Pen Shell, Scallops] 77
Gastropods [Abalone, Conch, Top Shell] 104
Vertebrates 111
Amphibians [Frog] 111
Finfishes 114
Some Aquaculturally Important Fish Groups 114
[Centrarchids, Flatfish, Salmonids, Sciaenids]
Aquaculturally Important Fish Species 120
[Bass, Bowfin, Buffalo Fish, Carp, Catfish, Char, Cod, Crappie, Croaker,
Dolphin Fish, Drum, Eel, Grouper, Halibut, Milkfish, Mullet, Muskellunge,
Paddlefish, Perch, Pike, Pompano, Pumpkinseed, Salmon, Seatrout, Shad,
Snapper, Snook, Sturgeon, Tilapia, Trout, Tuna, Walleye, Yellowtail]
Reptiles [Alligator, Crocodile, Turtle] 196
4 Nonfood Species 205
Foods for Aquacultural Species 205
Plants [Algae, Aquatic Plants, Terrestrial Plants] 206
Invertebrates
Arthropods/Crustaceans [Brine Shrimp, Copepods, Water Fleas] 209
Rotifers 216
Annelids! Aquatic Oligochaetes [Tubifex Worms] 218
Sportfish Bait 219
Invertebrates 220
AnnelidsIMarine Bait Worms [Bloodworms, Lugworms] 220
Arthropods/Crustaceans [Grass Shrimp] 223
VertebrateslBait Fish [Golden Shiner, Gulf Killifish] 225
Experimental Animals 230
Bioassay and Aquatic Toxicology Species 230
Biomedical Assay Species 231
Mollusks 232
Gastropods [Sea Hare] 232
Cephalopods [Octopus, Squid] 234
Ornamental Species (Pets) 238
Plants [Water Hyacinth] 238
Invertebrates 241
Arthropods/Crustaceans [Land Hermit Crab] 241
Live Rocks 243
Live Rock Collection 243
Live Rock Culture 244
Mollusks/Gastropods [Apple Snail] 246
Vertebrates 248
Ornamental Fish [Goldfish] 248
Reptiles [Red-eared Terrapin] 252
CONTENTS vII
Production of Chemicals (Carrageenan & Drugs) 253
Macroalgae [Irish Moss, Giant Kelp] 253
Miscellaneous Market Products 258
Pearls [pearl Oyster] 258
Sponges [Wool Sponge] 261
Selected References 263
Appendixes
A Glossary 268
B Major Groups of Aquacultural Species 278
C Aquacultural Species Common Name/Scientific Name 280
D Aquacultural Species Scientific Name/Common Name 282
E Geographic Listing of Major and Potential North American
Aquacultural Species 284
F Examples of Important Predators on Aquacultural Species 289
G Examples of Important Parasites of Aquacultural Species 292
H National Aquaculture Associations 297
I Measurement Conversion Table 298
Subject Index 299
Taxonomic Index 306
Preface
Since the late 1970s, interest in aquaculture-the fresh-, brackish-, and salt
water fanning of fish and shellfish-has grown by leaps and bounds. There
has been a simultaneous boom in the literature of aquaculture.
Both authors receive frequent requests for information on the aquacultural
potential of organisms. Some are from people with little or no background in
fishery science; they want a brief, easy-to-scan text outlining information on
species they might successfully produce in a gertain geographic area or under
special conditions. Others are from individuals with more scientific knowledge
and/or preliminary market research; they are seeking further details on a particu
lar candidate species.
This book is designed to satisfy requests of both kinds, as well as to serve as
a text for introductory courses in aquaculture. It is a ready reference to informa
tion on aquaculture, using terminology that can be understood by the layperson
as well as by the student and fishery scientist. Over a hundred species are dis
cussed in an easy, standardized format Each of these species entries covers the
organism's scientific and common names, description and distinctive character
istics, habitat range, reproduction and development, age and growth, food and
feeding, parasites and disease, predators and competitors, aquacultural poten
tial, and regions where each of these species are (or have been) farmed and/or
researched. The most important biological, environmental, and other pertinent
requirements necessary for successfully raising each species are emphasized;
possible pitfalls and disadvantages presented; and the most useful, available
current literature listed, providing broader coverage for those readers who may
need it.
The design of aquacultural facilities and financial aspects are not covered in
any detail; neither are the legal contraints involved in starting up an aquacultural
facility, nor the processing, marketing, or transportation of the product. These
aspects, though certainly important, are beyond the scope of this work: Current
Ix
x PREFACE
publications on these additional subjects are listed in the Selected References
near the end of the book.
The majority of illustrations of fish species are from detailed drawings by H. L.
Todd, and drawings of the invertebrate species are by J. H. Emerton and asso
ciates; these appeared in G. B. Goode, The fisheries and fishery industries of
the United States, published during 1884-7 by the U.S. Government Printing
Office. The drawings of the rotifer, copepod, and sea hare are reprinted by per
mission of Wadsworth, Inc., from R. A. Pimental (1967), Invertebrate identifi
cation manual, New York, Reinhold.
Additional credit for photographs and drawings goes to the following:
International Pacific Halibut Commission (early development of halibut);
A. P. Andriashev (Arctic char);
C. N. D' Asaro (lugworm);
I. Flye (bloodworm);
P. S. Galtsoff (mangrove oyster);
J. Z. Iversen (brine shrimp, pen shell, tubifex worm, and the life-cycle draw-
ings of penaeid shrimp, milkfish, and mullet);
J. A. Oliver (alligator, crocodile);
J. Randall (queen conch);
S. E. Smith (hypothetical bony fish);
J. F. Storr (sponges); and
A. Williams (West Indian king crab).
OUT thanks are also extended to the various state, federal, and international or
ganizations whose publications have provided illustrations used in this volume.
We thank Don Heuer of the Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Sci
ence (RSMAS) Printing and Photo Services for his expert help with the illustra
tions, and Assistant Librarian Helen D. Albertson for her efficient and good
natured interlibrary loans. We also gratefully acknowledge the anonymous
reviewer whose suggestions for reorganization were incorporated into the final
draft manuscript.
We would like to express out appreciation to the following editorial staff
members of Van Nostrand Reinhold for their cooperative and conscientious as
sistance in the publication of this work: Dr. Eleanor Riemer, Michael Beck, and
Michael Gnat
1
Introduction
Despite documentation that various types of aquaculture were practiced as early
as 2000 B.C. in the Far East, interest in the Western world developed rapidly
only about thirty years ago. Optimistic articles in the news media predicted how
this "newfound" protein source could literally feed the world. Based on these
early reports, Western entrepreneurs had great expectations for profitable ven
tures. At a time when the buzz words in many developed countries were "new
ventures" and "diversification," large corporations allotted substantial portions
of their financial resources to aquaculture. Unfortunately, at this time the bio
technology of aquatic organisms and aquacultural field trials for many species
were unavailable, and there was little significant progress. Accounts of failed
ventures were commonplace, and examples of Western aquacultural success
were few.
The types of aquaculture successful in the Far East were, in many cases,
small subsistence and part-time operations conducted in order to feed members
of the farmer's immediate family; there was little or no profit motive. Western
entrepreneurs faced the grim conclusion that most aquaculture ventures were
big money losers. They had not recognized the high level of economic risk, and
many were unaware of how extremely limited biotechnological knowledge was
for many species. Success required information.
After years of experience, we now see new optimistic, yet more realistic,
outlooks. Regarding private aquacultural ventures, Dr. P. Larkin-a noted
fishery biologist with the Institute of Animal Resource Ecology, University of
British Columbia-predicts that "over the next 50 years, aquacultural produc
tion will equal, if not surpass, wild production of fish" (Larkin 1988). For this
prediction to be realized, present world fresh- and saltwater aquacultural pro
duction-about 13 million metric tons (mmt)-must increase to about 75 mmt
(assuming world capture-fishery production remains constant). This means that
world aquacultural production would have to increase about 1.2 mmt per year.
1
2 INTRODUCTION
Dr. H. Rosenthal (1985) predicts that world aquacultural production will in
crease to about 30 mmt by the year 2000. Given the U.N. Food and Agricultur
al Organization's (FAO) 1985 world-production estimate of 13 mmt, Rosen
thai's prediction requires an increase of 17 mmt in fifteen years, or about 1.13
mmt a year. This figure, close to that of Larkin, also reflects an optimistic future
for aquaculture. FAO scientists (quoted in Shrimp farm boom! 1988) estimate
that, by the year 2000, annual aquacultural production of freshwater prawns
and tropical marine shrimp alone will exceed 1 mmt. The many reasons for in
creased maricultural production are reviewed by Ryther (1981).
It should be noted that estimating worldwide aquacultural production is prob
lematic for several reasons: the enormity of the area estimated, the scarcity of
data, the diversity of aquacultural and data-reporting practices, and so on. Still,
there are good reasons to accept the optimism reflected in these predictions, not
the least of which is that they are made by highly qualified fishery scien
tists with years of experience. Moreover, present-day aquaculture has clearly
benefited from numerous biotechnological advances and accumulated informa
tion.
SOURCES OF AQUA CULTURAL INFORMATION
Until recently, there were very few reliable sources of information on aquacul
ture available. The number of aquaculture books and monographs has doubled
every five years since 1961 (Maclean 1988); in addition, there are now numer
ous journals dedicated to aquaculture, as well as many others in the fields of
agriculture, economics, and medicine that publish aquaculture articles.
Requests for aquacultural information from the U.S. Department of Agricul
ture's (USDA) National Agriculture Library have increased sharply, from 250
in 1985 to 4,200 requests in 1989. A number of government and private insti
tutions also publish "how-to" handbooks and manuals or offer courses in aqua
culture. These courses, which are advertised in aquaculture journals and maga
zines, range from college level to those requiring little or no formal education.
Some even include hands-on rearing of shrimp and finfish.
The new literature provides invaluable background on aquacultural biotech
nology; consequently, more realistic articles are now available on the practical
problems and constraints of starting and operating aquacultural ventures. Ro
senthal (1985) identifies environmental degradation, disease control in aquatic
species, human health, and competition for resources as important impediments
to successful aquaculture. He also notes that research gaps in science and tech
nology still exist. Shupe (1982) describes competing interest groups (salmon
fishermen vs. salmon ranchers and farmers) as well as legal constraints (regula
tory complexities of private vs. public rights).
Due to a variety of social, legal, and economic constraints, technological ad-