Aquaculture CRSP

210 Pages·2005·1.52 MB·English

Aquaculture
Collaborative Research Support Program
ELEVENTH WORK PLAN, PART II
Printed August 2005
This work plan describes a stan dard ized set of ex per i ments to be un der tak en by the
Aquaculture Collaborative Research Support Program through July 2006, the end of
the current grant period. Program act iv i ties are funded in part by Grant No. LAG-G-00-
96-90015-00 from the United States Agency for International Development (USAID)
and by participating US and host country institutions. The authors’ opinions expressed
herein do not necessarily refl ect the views of USAID.
Aquaculture CRSP
Oregon State University
418 Snell Hall
Corvallis, Oregon 97331-1643 USA

Contents of the Eleventh Work Plan, Part II
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS ANALYSIS
Best Practices for Management of Aquaculture Pond Soils in ThailandEnvironmental
Impacts Analysis 1 (11.5EIAR1)...............................................................................................................................6
Establishment of Links with Chinese Institutions in Collaboration on Aquaculture and
Environmental ImpactsEnvironmental Impacts Analysis 2 (11.5EIAR2)........................................................10
Impact of Tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus Introduction on the Indigenous Species of Bangladesh,
Nepal, and CambodiaEnvironmental Impacts Analysis 3 (11.5EIA3)..............................................................12
Building the Capacity of Moi University to Conduct Watershed AssessmentEnvironmental Impacts
Analysis 4 (11.5EIAR4)...........................................................................................................................................15
Land-use Practices, Policy and Tenure Regimes in the Nzoia River BasinEnvironmental Impacts
Analysis 5 (11.5EIAR5)..........................................................................................................................................20
Workshops on Guidelines for Developing Aquaculture Best Management PracticesEnvironmental
Impacts Analysis 6 (11.5EIAR6).............................................................................................................................23
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND FOOD SECURITY
Amazon Aquaculture Outreach Sustainable Development and Food Security Research 1 (11.5SDFR1)................. 27
Understanding the Aquacultural Knowledge and Information System for Commercial Tilapia
Production in Nicaragua: Economics, Institutions, and MarketsSustainable Development and
Food Security Research 2 (11.5SDFR2)...................................................................................................................31
Assessing the Potential for Aquacultural Development to Promote Food Security Among
Indigenous People in GuatemalaSustainable Development and Food Security Research 3 (11.5SDFR3).......37
First Annual Sustainable Aquaculture Technology Transfer WorkshopSustainable Development and
Food Security Research 4 (11.5SDFR4)...................................................................................................................43
PRODUCTION SYSTEM DESIGN AND INTEGRATION
New Paradigm in Farming of Freshwater Prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii) With Closed and
Recycle SystemsProduction System Design and Integration Research 1 (11.5PSDR1)......................................47
Optimization of Fertilization Regimes in Fertilized Nile Tilapia Ponds with Supplemental
FeedProduction System Design and Integration Research 2 (11.5PSDR2)..........................................................49
Use of Rice Straw as a Resource for Freshwater Pond CultureProduction System Design and
Integration Research 3 (11.5PSDR3)........................................................................................................................ 52
Development of a Recirculating Aquaculture System Module for Family/Multi-Family Use
Production System Design and Integration Research 4 (11.5PSDR4)....................................................................56
Insulin-Like Growth Factor-1 Gene Expression as a Growth Indicator in Nile TilapiaProduction
System Design and Integration Research 5 (11.5PSDR5).......................................................................................59
Development of Nile Tilapia Fillets as an Export Product for the Philippines Production System
Design and Integration Research 6 (11.5PSDR6)....................................................................................................64
Tilapia–Shrimp Polyculture in Negros Occidental, PhilippinesProduction System Design and
Integration Research 7 (11.5PSDR7).......................................................................................................................68
Testing Three Styles of Tilapia–Shrimp Polyculture in Tabasco, MexicoProduction System
Design and Integration Research 8 (11.5PSDR8)....................................................................................................71
INDIGENOUS SPECIES DEVELOPMENT
Controlled Reproduction of an Important Indigenous Species, Spinibarbus denticulatus, in
Southeast AsiaIndigenous Species Development Research 1 (11.5ISDR1)..........................................................74
Broodstock Development of Amazonian FishesIndigenous Species Development Research 2 (11.5ISDR2).........77
Incorporation of the Native Cichlid Petenia splendida into Sustainable Aquaculture:
Reproduction Systems, Nutrient Requirements and Feeding Strategies Indigenous Species
De vel op ment Research 3 (11.5ISDR3).....................................................................................................................80
Broodstock Development and Larval Feeding of Amazonian FishesIndigenous Species Development
Research 4 (11.5ISDR4)...........................................................................................................................................86
WATER QUALITY AND AVAILABILITY
Pond Design and Watershed Analyses TrainingWater Quality and Availability Research 1 (11.5WQAR1).......92
Elimination of Methyltestosterone from Intensive Masculinization Systems: Use of Ultraviolet
Irradiation of Water Water Quality and Availability Research 2 (11.5WQAR2)............................................... 96
Elimination of Methyltestosterone from Intensive Masculinization systems: Use of Solar Irradiation
and Bacterial DegradationWater Quality and Availability Research 3 (11.5WQAR3)...................................100
Ecological Assessment of Selected Sub-Watersheds of the Nzoia River BasinWater Quality and
Availability Research 4 (11.5WQAR4)..................................................................................................................105
Determination of Hydrologic Baselines for the Nzoia BasinWater Quality and Availability
Research 5 (11.5WQAR5)......................................................................................................................................108
ECONOMIC/RISK ASSESSMENT AND SOCIAL ANALYSIS
Assessment of Coastal and Marine Aquaculture Development for Low Trophic Level Species
Economic/Risk Assessment and Social Analysis 1 (11.5ERAR1)..........................................................................115
Hydraulic, Water Quality and Social Assessment of the Nzoia Basin, KenyaEconomic/Risk
Assessment and Social Analysis 2 (11.5ERAR2)...................................................................................................116
Farmers Training in TanzaniaEconomic/Risk Assessment and Social Analysis 3 (11.5ERAR3)...........................120
APPLIED TECHNOLOGY AND EXTENSION METHODOLOGIES
Integrated Cage-Cum-Pond Culture Systems with High-Valued Fish Species in Cages and
Low-Valued Species in Open PondsApplied Technology and Extension Methodologies
Research 1 (11.5ATER1)........................................................................................................................................131
Reproductive Performance and Growth of Improved Tilapia, Oreochromis niloticusApplied
Technology and Extension Methodologies Research 2 (11.5ATER2).....................................................................134
Aquaculture Training for Kenyan Extension Workers, Fish Farmers, and University Students
Applied Technology and Extension Methodologies Research 3 (11.5ATER3).......................................................138
Training Local Farmers on Safe Handling of Steroids and Masculinization Techniques in Central
AmericaApplied Technology and Extension Methodologies Research 4 (11.5ATER4).......................................145
Establishment of the Center for Aquaculture Technology TransferApplied Technology and Extension
Methodologies Research (11.5ATER5)...................................................................................................................148
Diversifying and Strengthening Aquaculture Extension Capacity to Develop a Regional Extension Service
ModelApplied Technology and Extension Methodologies Research (11.5ATER6).............................................154
Site Visits and Information Exchange on Cichlid Culture and the Adoption of Aquaculture CRSP
Technologies in Aquaculture CRSP Host CountriesApplied Technology and Extension
Methodologies Research 7 (11.5ATER7)................................................................................................................158
Comparison of the Implementation of CRSP Technologies in Five Aquaculture CRSP Host
CountriesApplied Technology and Extension Methodologies Research 8 (11.5ATER8).....................................163
Special Sessions, Travel, and Poster Awards at 2005 and 2006 World Aquaculture Conferences and
Aquaculture America–2006Applied Technology and Extension Methodologies Research 9 (11.5ATER9)......165
Aquaculture CRSP Sponsorship of the Seventh International Symposium on Tilapia in Aquaculture
Applied Technology and Extension Methodologies Research 10 (11.5ATER10)...................................................168
SEEDSTOCK DEVELOPMENT AND AVAILABILITY
Evaluation and Improvement of Tilapia Fingerling Production and Availability in Honduras
Seedstock Development and Availability Research 1 (11.5SDA1).........................................................................170
Studies on Strategies for Increasing the Growth and Survival of African Catfi sh (Clarias
gariepinus) Juveniles Reared for Stocking or for Use as BaitSeedstock Development and Availability
Research 2 (11.5SDA2)..........................................................................................................................................175
Continuation of a Selective Breeding Program for Nile Tilapia to Provide Quality Broodstock for
Central AmericaSeedstock Development and Availability Research 3 (11.5SDA3)..........................................180
Development of Aquaculture Techniques for the Indigenous Species of Southern Mexico,
Centropomus undecimalis: Sex Determination and Differentiation and Effects of Temperature
Seedstock Development and Availability Research 4 (11.5SDA4).........................................................................183
FISH NUTRITION AND FEED TECHNOLOGY
Effects of Native Peruvian feedstuffs on Growth and Health of Colossoma and Piaractus
Fish Nutrition and Feed Technology Research 1 (11.5FNFR1).............................................................................189
Nutrition and Nutrient Utilization in Native Peruvian FishesFish Nutrition and Feed Technology
Research 2 (11.5FNFR2)........................................................................................................................................192
Use of Phytochemicals as an Environmentally-Friendly Method to Sex-Reverse Nile Tilapia Fish
Nutrition and Feed Technology Research 3 (11.5FNFR3)..................................................................................... 196
AQUACULTURE AND HUMAN HEALTH IMPACTS
Water Quality Monitoring and Identifi cation of Pollution Sources Leading Towards Classifi cation
of Bivalve Growing WatersAquaculture and Human Health Impacts Research 1 (11.5AHHR1)................... 204
Outreach and Planning for Implementation of Bivalve Growing Areas Classifi cation and Related
Sanitation Action ItemsAquaculture and Human Health Impacts Research 2 (11.5AHHR2)......................... 208
ELEVENTH WORK PLAN, PART II
Best Practices for Management of Aquaculture Pond Soils in Thailand
Environment Impacts Analysis 1 (11.5EIAR1)/Study/Thailand
IInnvveessttiiggaattoorrss
Claude E. Boyd US Principal Investigator Auburn University, Alabama
Mali Boonyaratpalin HC Principal Investigator Thailand Department of Fisheries,
Bangkok, Thailand
Idsariya Wudtisin Graduate Student
OObbjjeeccttiivveess
1) Evaluate pond soil data collected in Thailand and determine major similarities and differences
related to culture species.
2) Develop best management practices for pond bottom soil management in Thailand, and evalu-
ate the degree of adoption and effectiveness of the practices.
SSiiggnniififi ccaannccee
Sustainability and protection of the environment are major issues in aquaculture (Black, 2001). Unsus-
tainable projects are economically damaging, but often, they are the aquaculture endeavors that do the
most environmental harm (Clay, 2004). Two main reasons for unsustainability of aquaculture operations
are selection of inferior sites and application of inappropriate management procedures. Soil characteris-
tics should be given primary concern in selection of sites for pond aquaculture (Hajek and Boyd 1994),
and application of good bottom soil management is necessary for long-term operation of ponds. More-
over, attention to soil quality improves pond water quality, which in turn, favors both better production
and enhanced effl uent quality (Boyd, 1995).
Recent studies funded by Aquaculture CRSP and conducted in Thailand by Auburn University re-
searchers and collaborators in the Thailand Department of Fisheries have provided much data on the
physical and chemical properties of bottom soils in ponds for culture of black tiger shrimp (Penaeus
monodon) in coastal areas, low salinity culture of black tiger shrimp in inland areas, and production of
tilapia (Tilapia spp.), freshwater prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii), catfi sh (Clarias spp.), and carp (Pun-
tius spp.) in freshwater areas.
Because of high production levels in Thai aquaculture, deterioration of pond soil condition is a common
problem. The information on soil characteristics and pond management procedures accumulated in the
aforementioned studies can be used to develop best practices for pond soil management in Thailand.
These best management practices (BMPs) will be valuable in improving the prospects for sustainable
and environmentally-responsible pond aquaculture in Thailand and other nations.
QQuuaannttiififi eedd AAnnttiicciippaatteedd BBeenneefifi ttss
The best management practices will provide a means of transferring the best available information
on pond soil management in a simple form that can be understood easily by producers. The specifi c
expected benefi ts are as follows:
1) Development of guidelines for identifi cation of soils with properties suitable for aquaculture
ponds.
2) Preparation of BMPs for mitigating limitations of site soil properties and for maintaining good
bottom soil quality.
3) Preparation BMPs to prevent negative external impacts related to pond soil management.
RReesseeaarrcchh DDeessiiggnn aanndd AAccttiivviittyy PPllaann
Pond Facilities: No ponds are needed for this research. However, pond soil characteristics have been
determined for many ponds in most major aquaculture areas of Thailand (Boyd and Munsiri 1997;
Boyd et al., 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000; Wudtisin et al., 2004; Thunjai et al., 2004). This database will pro-
vide information needed in developing the BMPs.
6
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS ANALYSIS
E
N
V
Research Plan and Methodology: The US PI has considerable experience in developing BMPs for pond IMIR
aquaculture (Boyd, 1999, 2003; Boyd et al., 2001, 2003). The procedure used to develop BMPs in- PO
volves determining the negative impacts that result from a particular activity and developing prac- AN
CM
tices (BMPs) for preventing or mitigating the negative impacts. For example, suppose there is a layer TE
of potential acid-sulfate soil at a depth of 1 m beneath an area where ponds are to be constructed. SN
T
The practice for preventing excessive acidity in ponds is to construct ponds in a manner that this soil
A
layer is not disturbed and is not exposed in the bottoms of ponds or used in construction of pond L

embankments. Another good example is ponds located in an area with bottom soils of a pH of 5.
Such soils must be limed regularly to maintain pH above 7. Of course, the BMP will provide infor-
mation on pH measurement and liming practices.
Pond soil BMPs also will reduce negative effects of pond aquaculture on adjacent land and nearby
water bodies. The total suspended solids concentration is the water quality variable in pond effl uent
most likely to exceed an acceptable level (Boyd and Tucker, 1998). High concentrations of suspended
solids cause elevated turbidity and increased sedimentation rates in receiving water bodies. Thus,
pond soil BMPs will include ways of reducing the concentration of total suspended solids in pond
effl uents. For instance, the BMPs will recommend that ponds are drained in a manner to minimize
sediment resuspension, outlet gates or drains are closed in empty ponds to avoid discharge of turbid
water after heavy rains, and outlet canals are designed to resist erosion during effl uent discharge.
The practice of washing pond bottoms with jets of water from high-pressure hoses, as sometimes
done in Thailand, will be discouraged to prevent pollution of receiving waters. Moreover, disposal of
pond sediment on nearby land can cause deterioration of vegetation at the disposal site, and runoff
from sediment piles may increase turbidity and sedimentation in nearby streams or other aquatic
habitats. This study will include the design of BMPs to lessen negative, external impacts.
The database mentioned above on pond soils in Thailand will be evaluated to determine the main
soil limitations (Hajek and Boyd, 1994) that affect Thai aquaculture. Information on pond soil man-
agement (Boyd 1995) will be used to formulate management practices for mitigating the limita-
tions. The database also contains information on changes in pond bottom properties over time and
the usual practices applied in pond management during production of major culture species. This
information will be used in identifying negative changes that may occur in pond soils as a result of
aquaculture and BMPs to prevent these changes will be formulated. These BMPs will assure that
good bottom soil quality can be maintained over many years of pond use.
The graduate student for this study is conducting analyses of pond soils from catfi sh, carp, and
freshwater prawn ponds. She will use this information in her dissertation as well as develop the
BMPs with assistance from the US PI. The BMPs will be fi nalized in early 2005 following discussions
with the host country PI, other biologists, and fi sh farmers. They will be translated to Thai by the
student and distributed to fi sh producers by the Thailand Department of Fisheries.
Implementation of soil BMPs will require farmers to make changes in culture system infrastructure,
operations, and management techniques. The effectiveness of these changes will be refl ected in pre-
vention or reduction in negative impacts on infrastructure and nearby land and water. The US and
host country PIs will develop a survey document consisting of a checklist of items to be inspected
and questions to be asked of farmers. In early 2006, a sample of 10 to 15 farms in central Thailand
will be selected by local biologists of the Department of Fisheries. The PIs will travel to these farms
and conduct the evaluation of BMP adoption and effectiveness with aid of the survey document.
Statistical Analysis:
This study does not focus on measurable quantities that can be subjected to statistical analysis.
RReeggiioonnaall IInntteeggrraattiioonn
The project will integrate well into the regional plan. Pond aquaculture in Thailand is similar to that of
other Southeast and South Asian nations. Thus, the BMPs can be applied in other Asian nations. More-
over, many of the BMPs should be useful in pond aquaculture in other regions.
7
ELEVENTH WORK PLAN, PART II
Schedule
The tentative schedule follows:
November 2004: Begin project. Evaluate pond soil data and production methods to identify site soil
limitations and possible negative impacts.
December 2004: Student will fi nish portion of dissertation dealing with carp, catfi sh, and freshwater
prawn pond soils.
January-March 2005: BMPs will be formulated, translated to Thai, and distributed to fi sh farmers.
April-November 2005; Manuscripts on development of the BMPs will be prepared for submission to the
Thai Fisheries Gazette and to an international journal. The host country PI will respond to questions
from farmers about implementation of BMPs. The US PI will be involved through e-mail correspon-
dence.
December 2005: Student will complete dissertation and graduate.
March 2006: US PI will go to Thailand to assist with evaluation of degree of adoption and effectiveness
of BMPs.
30 April 2006: Termination of project (fi nal report).
Literature Cited
Black, K.D., (Editor), 2001. Environmental Impacts of Aquaculture. Sheffi eld Academic Press, Sheffi eld,
United Kingdom.
Boyd, C.E., 1995. Bottom soils, Sediment, and Pond Aquaculture. Chapman and Hall, New York, New
York.
Boyd, C. E., 1999. Codes of practice for responsible shrimp farming. Global Aquaculture Alliance, St.
Louis, Missouri, USA.
Boyd, C. E., 2003. Aquaculture effl uent management at the farm level. Aquaculture 226:101-112.
Boyd, C. E. and P. Munsiri, 1997. Water quality in laboratory soil-water microcosms with soils from dif-
ferent areas of Thailand. Journal of the World Aquaculture Society 28:165-170.
Boyd, C. E. and C. S. Tucker, 1998. Pond Aquaculture Water Quality Management. Kluwer Academic
Publishers, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.
Boyd, C. E., M. C. Haws, and B. W. Green, 2001. Improving shrimp mariculture in Latin America: Good
management practices (GMPs) to reduce environmental impacts and improve effi ciency of shrimp
aquaculture in Latin America and an assessment of practices in the Honduran shrimp industry.
Coastal Resources Center, University of Rhode Island, Narragansett, Rhode Island, USA.
Boyd, C. E., J. Queiroz, and C. W. Wood, 1997. Pond soil characteristics and dynamics of soil organic
matter and nutrients. In: D. Burke, J. Baker, B. Goetze, D. Clair, and H. Egna (Editors), Fifteenth
Annual Technical Report. Pond Dynamics/Aquaculture CRSP, Oregon State University, Corvallis,
Oregon, pp. 11–25.
Boyd, C. E., J. Queiroz, and C. W. Wood, 1998. Pond soil characteristics and dynamics of soil organic
matter and nutrients. In: D. Burke, J. Baker, B. Goetze, D. Clair, and H. Egna (Editors), Fifteenth
Annual Technical Report. Pond Dynamics/Aquaculture CRSP, Oregon State University, Corvallis,
Oregon, pp. 11–25.
Boyd, C. E., J. Queiroz, and C. W. Wood, 1999. Pond soil characteristics and dynamics of soil organic
matter and nutrients. In: K. McElwee, D. Burke, M. Niles, and H. Egna (Editors), Sixteenth Annual
Technical Report. Pond Dynamics/Aquaculture CRSP, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon,
pp. 1–7.
Boyd, C. E., C. W. Wood, T. Thunjai, and S. Sonnenholzner, 2000. Pond soil characteristics and dynam-
ics of soil organic matter and nutrients. In: K. McElwee, D. Burke, M. Niles, X. Cummings, and H.
Egna (editors), Seventeenth Annual Technical Report. Pond Dynamics/Aquaculture CRSP, Oregon
State University, Corvallis, Oregon, pp. 1–8.
Boyd, C. E., J. F. Queiroz, G. N. Whitis, R. Hulcher, P. Oakes, J. Carlisle, D. Odom, Jr., M. M. Nelson, and
W. G. Hemstreet, 2003. Best management practices for channel catfi sh farming in Alabama. Special
Report 1, Alabama Catfi sh Producers, Montgomery, Alabama.
Clay, J., 2004. World Agriculture and the Environment. Inland Press, Washington, D.C., USA.
Hajek, B. F. and C. E. Boyd, 1994. Rating soil and water information for aquaculture. Aquacultural Engi-
neering 13:115–128.
Thunjai, T., C. E. Boyd, and M. Boonyaratpalin, 2004. Bottom soil quality in tilapia ponds of different
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ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS ANALYSIS
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age in Thailand. Aquaculture Research 35:698–705. IMIR
Wudtisin, I., C. E. Boyd, K. Silapajarn, and M. Boonyaratpalin, 2004. Further studies on soil quality in PO
aquaculture ponds in Thailand. Twenty-Second Annual Technical Report, Aquaculture CRSP, Oregon AN
CM
State University, Corvallis, Oregon, (In press). TE
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9
ELEVENTH WORK PLAN, PART II
Establishment of Links with Chinese Institutions in Collaboration on Aquaculture
and Environmental Impacts
Environmental Impacts Analysis 2 (11.5EIAR2)/Activity/China
IInnvveessttiiggaattoorrss
James S. Diana US Principal Investigator University of Michigan
C. Kwei Lin US Co-Principal Investigator University of Michigan
Yang Yi HC Principal Investigator Asian Institute of Technology,
Pathumthani, Thailand
OObbjjeeccttiivveess
1) Establish links wiath Chinese institutions for future CRSP research.
2) Identify potential CRSP sites in China and to conduct preliminary site evaluation.
3) Identify environmental problems caused by aquaculture/fi sheries activities and develop re-
searchable topics.
SSiiggnniififi ccaannccee
Aquaculture CRSP has conducted research/outreach activities in Asia for more than two decades.
However, it has not been expanded to China, which is the largest aquaculture producer in the world.
Aquaculture and culture-based fi sheries have been developed and intensifi ed rapidly in China since
late 1970s, and have played important roles in the livelihood of Chinese farmers through employment,
income generation, and food security. China produces about 70% of the world’s farmed aquatic prod-
ucts. However, environmental impacts related to inland aquaculture and culture-based fi sheries have
caused serious concerns. Lack of environmental awareness and environmentally friendly technologies
have polluted most public waters such as rivers, lakes, and reservoirs. Many dams are constructed
on small streams or large rivers to create artifi cial reservoirs for various purposes including fi sh pro-
duction. The impacts of dams and related fi shery activities on natural aquatic ecosystems and native
biodiversity urgently need to be addressed. With intensifi cation of aquaculture systems, heavy uses
and abuses of chemicals and drugs are concerns for food safety and sustainable use of those waters for
fi sheries production. China also has the largest number of exotic aquatic species in the world. Potential
impacts of fi shery development on biodiversity should be addressed, and appropriate control mecha-
nisms need to be established. However, such environmental concerns have not been fully addressed
through research and education at various levels. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to identify and
address environmental issues related to aquaculture and fi sheries activities for promoting sustainable
development of inland aquaculture and cultured-based fi sheries in China.
AAnnttiicciippaatteedd BBeenneefifi ttss
This study will be important to increase public awareness on aquaculture-related environmental issues
through education, research, and outreach in China.
RReesseeaarrcchh DDeessiiggnn
1) Establish linkages between AIT and Chinese institutions including academic and governmental
institutions;
2) Hold a two-day expert consultation meeting including 20-25 experts from various institutions
as well as members of the CRSP PMO to review environmental issues in aquaculture and fi sh-
eries in China, and identify and prioritize researchable topics;
3) Support 1-3 graduate students each from an identifi ed partner institution to conduct thesis re-
search on different environment issues jointly supervised by AIT and Chinese researchers; and
4) Support 1-3 Chinese scientists each from the identifi ed partner institution to attend the World
Aquaculture Society Annual Meeting and the Aquaculture CRSP Regional Network Meeting to
be held in May 2005 at Bali, Indonesia.
10