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AQA Chemistry 2nd Edition A LEVEL OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS Great Clarendon Street, Oxford. OX2 6DP. United Kingdom Oxford University Press is a department ofthe University ofOxford. It furthers the University's objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark ofOxford University Press in the UK and in certain other counu·ies ©Ted Lister andJanet Renshaw 2015 The moral rights ofthe authors have been assened First published in 2015 All rights reserved. No pan ofthis publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any fonn or by any means. without the prior permission in writing ofOxford University Press. or as expressly permitted by law. by licence or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department. Oxford University Press. at the address above. You must not circulate this work in any other form and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Data available 978-0-19-835182-5 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 Paper used in the production ofthis book is a natural. recyclable product made from wood grown in sustainable forests. The manufacturing process conforms to the environmental regulations ofthe country of origin. Printed in China by Golden Cup Printing Co Lld The authors would like to acknowledge Colin Chambers and Lawrie Ryan. as well as the contribution oftheir editors - Sophie Ladden. Alison Schrecker. Sadie Ann Garratt. and Sarah Ryan. The authors and publisher are grateful to the following for permission to reproduce photographs and other copyright material in this book. Adcnowledgements Cover: Omer N Raja / Shutterstock; p2·3(b/g): Rynio Productions/ Shutterstock: p4: IBM; ptO: john Mclean/Science Photo Library; p12: Jpl-Caltech/Msss/NASA; p23: Martyn Chill maid: p27: Hulton-Deutsch Collection/Corbis; p31: Martyn Chillmaid: p62: Nicolas/iSrockphoto: p66: AptTone/Shutterstock: p72: Martyn F. Chillmaid/Science Photo Library; p80: Martyn F. Chillrnaid; p102(T): Foxten-ier2005/Shutterstock; p102(8): Constantine Pankin/Shutterstock: p108: Science Photo Library: pl14: Science Photo Library: pt28: Martyn F. ChillmaidfScience Photo Library; pt31: Charles D. Winters/Science Photo Library: p140-14t(b/g): Kuttelvaserova StuchelovafShutterstock; pt42: SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY: ptSS: Andrew FletcherfShutterstock: p156(8): Russ Munn/Agstockusa/Science Photo Library; pt 56(T): Green Gate Publishing Se1vices. Tonbridge. Kent; pl60: Sciencephotos/Alamy; pt66: Andrew Lambert Photography/Science Photo Library: p174 17S (b/g): Sergio Stakhnyk/Shutterstock: pt 84(T): Molekuul.Be/ Shutterstock: p184(B): Meunierd/Shutterstock; pl 92(T): Martyn F. Chillmaid: p192(B): Martyn F. Chillm;1id/Science Photo Library; pt94: Terry Poche/Fotolia; p196: Green Gate Publishing Services. Tonbridge. Kent: pt98: E.R.Oegginger/Sciencc Photo Library; p199(T): Kzenon/Shutterstock; p199(B): Science Photo Library; p201 : Fotostorm/iStockphoto; p206: Martyn F. Chill maid/Science Photo Library: p217: Martyn F. Chillmaid; p224: Corel: p22S: Martyn F. Chillmaid/Science Photo Library: p226(f): Andrew Lambert Photography/Science Photo Library: p226(B): Woraput/ iStockphoto: p230: Martyn F. ChillmaidjScience Photo Library; p231: urbanbuzz/Shutterstock; p23S: Martyn F. Chillmaid: p237: lsopixfRex Features: p239(f): Andrew Lambert Photography/ Science Photo Library: p239(B): Martin Shiclds/Alamy: p243: Corel: p244: Colin Cuthbert/Newcastle University/ Science Photo Library: p2S6-257: Rynio Productions/Shutterstock: p26S: Photolab /Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory; p303: Andrew Lambert Photography/Science Photo Library; p310(f): Erik Khalitov/ iStockphoto: p3tO(B): cjp/iStockphoto; p312: Colin Cuthbert/ Science Photo Library: p313: D Burke/Alamy: p316: Andrew Lambert Photogrnphy/Science Photo Library; p 318: Public Health England/Science Photo Library; p319: Science Photos/Alamy: p322: Auscape/Getty Images: p32S(R): Martyn F. Chillmaid/Science Photo Library; p32S(L): Andrew Lamben Photography/Science Photo Library; p332(f): Belmonte/BSIPfScience Photo Library; p332(BL): QukafShutterstock; p332(BR): urbanbuzz/Shutterstock: p343: Rynio ProductionsjShutterstock; p344-34S: Kuttclvaserova Stuchelova/ Shutterstock: p39S: Kuttelvaserova StuchelovafShuttcrstock: p347(T): Andrew Lambert Photography/Science Photo Library; p347(B): Andrew Lambert Photography/Science Photo Libra1y; p348: Charles D. Winlers/Science Photo Library: p359: Martyn F. Chillmaid/Scicnce Photo Library; p364: Andrew Lmnben Photography/Science Photo Library; p366: SunChan/iSLockphoto; p382(L): Andrew Lambert Photography/Science Photo Library; p382(K): Andrew Lambert Photography/Science Photo l.ibrary; p384: Andrew Lambert Photography/Science Photo Library: p386: Andrew Lambert Photography/Science Photo Library: p39&397: Sergio Stakhnyk/Shutterstock; p40S(B): Martyn F. Chillmaid/ Science Photo Library; p40S(T): Martyn F. Chillmaid/Science Photo Library; p40S(q: wareham.nl (spon )/Alamy; p413(CL): Martyn F. ChillmaidjScience Photo Library; p413(CR): Martyn F. Chillmaidj Science Photo Library: p413(R): Science Photo Library: p416: Andrew Lambert Photography/Science Photo Library: p419: Martyn F. Chillmaid/Science Photo Library: p421: Ria Novosti/Science Photo Library; p424(L): Molck-uul/Science Photo Libraiy: p428(R): Science Pholo Libra1y; p433: Martyn F. Chillmaid/Scicnce Photo Library; p434: Press lllustrating ServicejNational Geographic Creative/Corbis: p440: Adventure_Photo/iStockphoto; p441 : MeePoohyaPhoto/Shutterstock; p443: evemilla/iSLOckphoto; p44S: Varipics/iSLockphoto; p446: urbanbuzz/ShuttersLOck: p4SO(T): pidjoe/iStockphoto: p4SO(B): dtOJmbb/iStockphoto: p452(T): Charles D. Winters/Science Photo Library: p452(B): Michael Stokes/ Shutterstock: p454: Fl.PA/Alamy; p471: Argonaut technologies; p483: OUP: p492(f): Ezz Mika ElyafShutterstock: p492(B): Kondor83/Shutterstock; p496: Charles D. Winters/Science Phot0 Library; p498: Mark SykesjScience Photo Library: p507: Sergio Stakhnyk/Shutterstock: p5JO: Science Photo Library: pSt4: Science Photo Library: Artwork by Q2A Media Although we have made eve1y effo1t to u·ace and contact all copyright holders before publication this has not been possible in all cases. If notified. the publisher will rectify any errors or omissions at the earliest opportunity. Links Lo third party websites are provided by Oxford in good faith and for infonnation only. Oxford disclaims any responsibility for the materials contained in any third pany website referenced in this work. This book has been writcen co support students studying for AQA A Level Chemistry. The sections covered are shown in the conrems list, which shows you the page numbers for the main topics within each section. There is also an index at the back to help you find what you are looking for. 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How to use this book vii Kerboodle xi Section 1 Physical chemistry 1 2 4.4 Hess's law 82 4.5 Enthalpy changes of combustion 85 1 Atomic structure 4 4.6 Representing thermochemical cycles 87 1.1 Fundamental particles 4 4.7 Bond enthalpies 91 1.2 Mass number, atomic number, Practice questions 94 and isotopes 6 1.3 The arrangement of the electrons 8 5 Kinetics 96 1.4 The mass spectrometer 10 5.1 Collision theory 96 1.5 More about electron arrangements 5.2 The Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution 98 in atoms 14 5.3 Catalysts 100 1.6 Electron arrangements and ionisation Practice questions 104 energy 17 6 Equilibria 106 Practice questions 20 6.1 The idea of equilibrium 106 2 Amount of substance 22 6.2 Changing the conditions of an 2.1 Relative atomic and molecular masses, equilibrium reaction 108 the Avogadro constant, and the mole 22 6.3 Equilibrium reactions in industry 111 2.2 Moles in solution 25 6.4 The Equilibrium constant, Kc 114 2.3 The ideal gas equation 27 6.5 Calculations using equilibrium 2.4 Empirical and molecular formulae 30 constant expressions 116 2.5 Balanced equations and related 6.6 The effect of changing conditions calculations 35 on equilibria 119 2.6 Balanced equations, atom economies, Practice questions 122 and percentage yields 39 7 Oxidation, reduction, and redox reactions 124 Practice questions 42 7.1 Oxidation and reduction 124 3 Bonding 44 7.2 Oxidation states 127 3.1 The nature of ionic bonding 44 7.3 Redox equations 130 3.2 Covalent bonding 47 Practice questions 134 3.3 Metallic bonding 50 Section 1 practice questions 136 3.4 Electronegativity - bond polarity in Section 1 summary 138 covalent bonds 52 3.5 Forces acting between molecules 54 Section 2 Inorganic chemistry 1 140 3.6 The shapes of molecules and ions 60 8 Periodicity 142 3.4 Bonding and physical properties 64 8.1 The Periodic Table 142 Practice questions 71 8.2 Trends in the properties of elements 4 Energetics 72 Period 3 145 4.1 Exothermic and endothermic reactions 72 8.3 More trends in the properties of the 4.2 Enthalpy 75 elements of Period 3 147 4.3 Measuring enthalpy changes 77 • 8.4 A closer look at ionisation energies 150 Practice questions 152 9 Group 2, the Alkaline Earth Metals 154 9.1 The physical and chemical properties of Group 2 154 Practice questions 158 10 Group 7(17), the Halogens 160 10.1 The Halogens 160 10.2 The chem ical reactions of the Halogens 162 10.3 Reactions of halide ions 164 10.4 Uses of chlorine 167 Practice questions 168 Section 2 practice questions 170 Section 2 summary 172 Section 3 Organic chemistry 1 174 11 Introduction to organic chemistry 176 11.1 Carbon compounds 176 11.2 Nomenclature - naming organic compounds 181 11.3 Isomerism 186 Practice questions 188 12 Alkanes 190 12.1 Alkanes 190 12.2 Fractional distillation of crude oil 193 12.3 Industrial cracking 196 12.4 Combustion of alkanes 198 12.5 The formation of halogenoalkanes 201 Practice questions 204 13 Halogenoalkanes 206 13.1 Halogenoalkanes - introduction 206 13.2 Nucleophilic substitution in halogenoalkanes 208 13.3 Elimination reaction in halogenoalkanes 211 Practice questions 214 14 Alkenes 216 14.1 Alkenes 216 14.2 Reactions of alkenes 220 14.3 Addition polymers 224 Practice questions 228 15Alcohols 230 15.1 Alcohols - introduction 230 15.2 Ethanol production 233 15.3 The reactions of alcohols 235 Practice questions 240 16 Organic analysis 242 16.1 Test-tube reactions 242 16.2 Mass spectrometry 243 16.3 Infrared spectroscopy 245 Practice questions 250 Section 3 practice questions 252 Section 3 summary 254 Section 1 Physical chemistry 2 256 17 Thermodynamics 258 17.1 Enthalpy change 258 17.2 Born- Haber cycles 261 17.3 More enthalpy changes 267 17.4 Why do chemistry reactions take place? 269 Practice questions 276 18 Kinetics 278 18.1 The rate of chemical reactions 278 18.2 The rate expression and order of reaction 281 18.3 Determining the rate equation 284 18.4 The Arrhenius equation 289 18.5 The rate-determining step 293 Practice questions 296 19 Equilibrium constant K p 298 19.1 Equilibrium constant K p for homogeneous systems 298 Practice questions 301 20 Electrode potentials and electrochemical ce Is 302 20 1 The electrochemical series 302 20.2 Predicting the direction of redox reactions 306 20.3 Electrochemical cells 310 Practice questions 314 21 Acids, bases, and buffers 316 • 21.1 Defining an acid 316 21.2 The pH scale 318 21.3 Weak acids and bases 322 21.4 Acid- base titrations 325 21.5 Choice of indicators for titrations 328 21.6 Buffer solutions 331 Practice questions 336 Section 1 practice questions 338 Section 1 summary 342 Section 2 Inorganic chemistry 2 344 22 Periodicity 346 22.1 Reactions of Period 3 elements 346 22.2 The oxides of elements in Period 3 349 22.3 The acidic/basic nature of the Period 3 oxides 353 Practice questions 355 23 The transition metals 358 23.1 The general properties of transition metals 358 23.2 Complex formation and the shape of complex ions 360 23.3 Coloured ions 364 23.4 Variable oxidation states of transition elements 367 23.5 Catalysts 373 Practice questions 377 24 Reactions of inorganic compounds in aqueous solutions 378 24.1 The acid-base chemistry of aqueous transition metal ions 378 24.2 Ligand substitution reactions 383 24.3 A summary of acid- base and substitution reactions of some metal ions 386 Practice questions 388 Section 2 practice questions 390 Section 2 summary 394 Section 3 Organic chemistry 2 396 25 Nomenclature and isomerism 398 • 25.1 Naming organic compounds 398 25.2 Reactions of the carbonyl group in aldehydes and ketones 412 25.3 Synthesis of optically active compounds 404 Practice questions 408 26 Compounds containing the carbonyl group410 26.1 Introduction to aldehydes and ketones 410 26.2 Reactions ofthe carbonyl group in aldehydes and ketones 412 26.3 Carboxylic acids and esters 415 26.4 Reactions of carboxylic acids and esters 418 26.5 Acylation 422 Practice questions 427 27 Aromatic chemistry 428 27.1 Introduction to arenes 428 27.2 Arenes - physical properties, naming, and reactivity 431 27.3 Reactions of arenes 433 Practice questions 437 28 Amines 440 28.1 Introduction to amines 440 28.2 The properties of amines as bases 442 28.3 Amines as nucleophiles and their synthesis 444 Practice questions 448 29 Polymerisation 450 29.1 Condensation polymers 450 Practice questions 456 30 Amino acids, proteins, and DNA 458 30.1 Introduction to amino acids 458 30.2 Peptides, polypeptides, and proteins 460 30.3 Enzymes 466 30.4 DNA 467 30.5 The action of anti-cancer drugs 471 Practice questions 472 31 Organic synthesis and analysis 474 31.1 Synthetic routes 474 31.2 Organic analysis 479 Practice questions 480 32 Structure determination 482 32.1 Nuclear magnetic resonance ( NMR) spectroscopy 482 32.2 Proton NMR 486 32.3 Interpreting proton, 1H, NMR spectra 488 Practice questions 494 33 Chromatography 496 33.1 Chromatography 496 Practice questions 500 Section 3 practice questions 502 Section 3 summary 506 Additional practice questions 508 Section 4 Practical skills 514 Section 5 Mathematical skills 521 Reference Data table 529 Periodic Table 531 Glossary 532 Answers 536 Index 551 • Learning objectives ' At the beginning of each topic, there is a list of learning objectives. ' These are matched to the specification and allow you to monitor your progress. ' A specification reference is also included. Specification reference: 3.1.1 Synoptic link These highlight how the sections relate to each other. Linking different areas of chemistry together is important, and you will need to be able to do this. There are also links to the mathematical skills on the specification. More detail can be found in the maths section. Study tips Study tips contain prompts to help you with your revision. They can also support the development of your practical skills (with the practical symbol 8 J and your mathematical skills (with the math symbol fO ]. Hint Hint features give other information or ways of thinking about a concept to support your understanding. They can also relate to practical or mathematical skills and use the symbols 9 and fO. • This book contains many different features. Each feature is designed to foster and stimulate your interest in chemistry, as well as supporting and developing the skills you will need for your examinations. Terms that it is important you are able to define and understand are highlighted in bold orange text. You can look these words up in the glossary. Sometimes a word appears in bold. These are words that are useful to know but are not used on the specifica1ion. They therefore do not have to be learnt for examination purposes. These features contain important and interesting applications of chemistry in order to emphasise how scientists and engineers have used their scientific knowledge and understanding to develop new applications and technologies. There are also application features to develop your maths skills, with the icon 0· and to develop your practical skills, with the icon f). Extension features These features contain material that is beyond the specification designed to stretch and provide you with a broader knowledge and understanding and lead the way into the types of thinking and areas you might study in further education. As such, neither the detail nor the depth of questioning will be required for the examinations. But this book is about more than getting through the examinations. 1 Extension and application features have questions that link the material with concepts that are covered in the specification. Short answers are inverted at the bottom of the featu re, whilst longer answers can be fou nd in the answers section at the back of the book. Summary questions 1 These are short questions that test your understanding of the topic and allow you to apply the knowledge and skills you have acquired. The questions are ramped in order of difficulty. 2 Questions that will test and develop your mathematical and practical skills are labelled with the mathematical symbol [fOJ and the practical symbol [fl). Introduction at the opening of each section summarises ...~...tluil11.irtll............_.,.tlw ...UllllAr - ,_,._ "'6...- -.&I' ID.m~..------=lirlrMt<_..... ,_....,...,.1\-1.... lllMr ........................ .......................................................... ...,..,. ..,__,....._....,~ .......~~llrqUml. ..........ti...__ ..,,...._...........-....... ....... ........,~....·1""""1--......-1~ what you need to know. ._________________...~..~·--k~nm.- ~~b<tw-~IDrqUin-alb Visual summaries of each section show how some of the key concepts of that section interlink. -·~l<h-•1.11·~- ..."_............. ~ ""'-lhriil<-.o/lf .......... h·l·~4l ........ 4 .... 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': ...-_..,................. - Mathematical section to support and develop your mathematical skills required for your course. Remember, at least 20% of your exam will involve mathematical skills. questions for each suggested practical on the specification. Remember, at least 15% of your exam will be based on practical skills. ·=:.:."'··-····· -. ;;~.~...,:~ ~........ ~.............. . ~ --- ______,,_ -·-·-·--__..... -----··· ... -·· ... __..____.._____ . ---·----·· ...._ - ._.._........ __ ·------ _... ____ _____..____ _..._ ...--...·---- ...........-.......-- ··---·--"-·· ----.. --- -...............----· ......_ -..--...... - .. .. ..,. ......._. ....... --·· _ ho_a_,..______ _ ::.:::.-:-~:.:=.::-..=-.... __,,___ -------··--- ·~::- J ..._......_.,._,,. ~ -- - . .=::::.·c-___ ~. -~ '"---:=..."':":'-.-. -- ... -··-·_, .... _ ... .... -__ ---_ ._.., ..---··· ''·-- --····-· - .....-·-··.. .,.e. .... 11.-111 Practical skills section with .=·~---- ..................,.........._..... ·-· =::. - ~· --·--·- ~ . ···-...-. .... ·-.. .,...,.___... .. . ===-~:'::"e..:!"-:'.::.:---.-.. ~=-.=.-:::::::~oo::=.:...:·:: ..,___·..--·--- ...... Section 3 proict1rn qu~1tion1 . ~ • , ................._ .. ____ ..-··- .,_._._ -•---..- . _,.__ r._ __ ......., __ .. --< .. _ ,_____._ ---· ..... ____,_,___ ---·-..----·---· ------· .. -..-·-·-·-- ---- ---·----· ( __..____.. -- • =='-=~.. ==~..-- --- Practice questions at the end of each chapter and each section, including questions that cover practical and maths skills. There are also additional practice questions at the end of the book. • This book is supported by next generation Kerboodle, offering unrivalled digital support for independent study, differentiation, assessment, and the new practical endorsement. If your school subscribes to Kerboodle, you will also find a wealth of additional resources to help you with your studies and with revision: Study guides Maths skills boosters and calculation worksheets • On your marks activities to help you achieve your best • Practicals and follow up activities to support the practical endorsement • Interactive objective tests that give question-by-question feedback • Animations and revision podcasts • Self-assessment checklists. Revise with ease using the study guides to guide · c.i~~-·c~ ·~~•HNIWUI. . ........,......,......~.......,""" . ......._ .. ~VI,. you through each chapter • """-...,__,,. ......•\OW '""1NliO •r,.,.....,,......,._ and direct you towards the ............................_......... .......,.._.,. ! quiPftM'nt ~ m.-tMla.. resources you need. . .............__ __ . _..._............... ' "'-'-.., ... . ..........._...... .-w..- · -... · ·- ·-- ·="C-----.._ ........_... --............. ·- ..................,._ • If you are a teacher reading this, Kerboodle also has plenty of further assessment resources, answers to the questions in the book, and a digital markbook along with full teacher support for practicals and the worksheets, which include suggestions on how to support and stretch your students. All of the resources are pulled together into teacher guides that suggest a route through each chapter. " Chapters in this section 1 Atomic structure 2 Amount of substance 3 Bonding 4 5 Energetics Kinetics 6 Equilibria ... 7 Oxidation, reduction, and redox reactions ~ It was only abour a century ago that scientists began to discover the nature of atoms, for example, that they were built up from smaller particles. This led to an understanding of how atoms are held together, why the arrangement of the Periodic Table makes sense, and how the properties of elements and compounds can be explained. This unit uses the understanding of how atoms behave to explain some of the most important ideas in chemistry. Atomic structure revises the idea of the atom, looking at some of the evidence for sub-atomic particles. It introduces the mass spectrometer, which is used to measure the masses ol' atoms. The evidence for rhe arrangemenr of electrons is sllldied and you wi ll see how a more sophisticared model using atomic orbitals rather than circular orbits was developed. Amount of substance is about quantitative chemistry, that is, how much product you gee from a given amount ol reactancs. The idea o[ the mole is used as the unit of quantity to compare equal numbers of acorns and molecules of different substances, including gases and solutions. Balanced equations are used to describe and measure the efficiency of chemical processes. Bonding revisits the three types of strong bonds that hold atoms rogether - ionic, covalent, and metallic. It introduces three weaker types of forces that act between molecules, the most significant of these being hydrogen bonding. It examines how the various types of forces are responsible for the solid, liquid. and gaseous states. and explores how the electrons contribute to the shapes ol molecules and ions. Energetics revisits exothermic and endothermic reactions and inrroduces the concept of enthalpy - heat energy measured under specific conditions. It looks at different ways of measuring enthalpy changes and then uses Hess's law to predict the energy changes of reactions. The idea of bond energies is explored 10 work out theoretical enthalpy changes by measuring the energy needed ro make and break bonds. Kinetics deals with the rate ac which reactions take place, reinforcing rhe idea that reactions only happen when molecules or rhe reactants collide with enough energy to break bonds. The Maxwell-Bolrzmann distribution shows us mathematically whar fraction of rhe reactant molecules have enough collision energy at a given remperarure. The role of catalysts is rhen explored. Equilibria is about reactions that do not go ro complerion so rhat rhe end result is a mixture of reactants and products. It examines how to get rhe greatest proportion of desired products in the mixture by changing the conditions. and how to calculate the equilibrium composirion. Some indusrrially important reversible reactions are then discussed. Redox reactions expands the definition o{ oxidation as addition of oxygen to include reactions that involve electron transfers. It explains the idea of an oxidation state for elements and ions. and uses this to help balance complex reclox (reduction-oxidation) equations. The applications of science are found throughout the chaprers, where they will provide you with an opportunity to apply your knowledge in a fresh context. What you already know The material in this section builds upon knowledge and understanding thar you will have developed aL GCSE, in particular the following: 0 There are just over LOO elements, all made up of atoms. 0 The atoms of any clement are essentially the same as each other but they arc different from the atoms of any other element. 0 Atoms are tiny and cannot be weighed individually. 0 Atoms arc made of pro10ns, neutrons, and electrons. 0 Atoms bond together to obrain full outer shells of electrons. 0 Atoms may lose or gain electrons to form ions with full outer electron shells. 0 Chemical reactions may give out (exothermic) or take in (endothermic) heat. 0 The rates of chemical reactions are affected by temperature, conccntrat.ion of reactants, surface area of solids, and catalysts. 0 Some chemical reactions are reversible - they do not go to complelion. 0 Reactions can be classified as oxidation (addition of oxygen) or reduction (removal of oxygen).