Applied Science PDF
Preview Applied Science
Applied Science (c) 2012 Salem Press. All Rights Reserved. Applied Science Volumes 1-5 Editor Donald R. Franceschetti, Ph.D. The University of Memphis Salem Press A Division of EBSCO Publishing Ipswich, Massachusetts Hackensack, New Jersey (c) 2012 Salem Press. All Rights Reserved. Cover Photo: Aerobraking Simulation on a Supercomputer (© Roger Ressmeyer/CORBIS) Copyright © 2012, by Salem PreSS, a Division of EBSCO Publishing, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be used or reproduced in any manner whatsoever or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without written permission from the copyright owner except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical articles and reviews or in the copying of images deemed to be freely licensed or in the public domain. For permissions requests, contact [email protected]. ∞ The paper used in these volumes conforms to the American National Standard for Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, Z39.48‑1992 (R1997). Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Applied science / editor, Donald R. Franceschetti. p. cm. ISBN 978-1-58765-781-8 (set) — ISBN 978-1-58765-782-5 (v. 1) — ISBN 978-1-58765-783-2 (v. 2) — ISBN 978-1- 58765-784-9 (v. 3) — ISBN 978-1-58765-785-6 (v. 4) — ISBN 978-1-58765-786-3 (v. 5) 1. Engineering. 2. Technology. I. Franceschetti, Donald R., 1947- 600‑‑dc23 2012002375 FirSt Printing Printed in the United StateS oF america (c) 2012 Salem Press. All Rights Reserved. CONTENTS Publisher’s Note ............................ vii Bioengineering ...........................191 Editor’s Introduction ........................ ix Biofuels and Synthetic Fuels .................199 Contributors .............................. xvii Bioinformatics ............................205 Common Units of Measure .................. xxi Biomathematics ...........................212 Complete List of Contents ................. xxvii Biomechanical Engineering .................217 Biomechanics .............................222 Acoustics ...................................1 Bionics and Biomedical Engineering ..........228 Aeronautics and Aviation ....................10 Biophysics ................................234 Agricultural Science .........................18 Bioprocess Engineering .....................240 Agroforestry ...............................24 Biosynthetics ..............................246 Agronomy .................................29 Bridge Design and Barodynamics .............252 Air-Quality monitoring ......................35 Air Traffic Control ..........................41 Calculus .................................257 Algebra ...................................46 Camera Technologies ......................262 Anesthesiology .............................55 Cardiology ...............................268 Animal Breeding and Husbandry ..............60 Cell and Tissue Engineering .................274 Anthropology ..............................66 Ceramics .................................281 Antiballistic Missile Defense Systems ...........72 Chaotic Systems ...........................287 Apiology ..................................78 Charge-Coupled Devices ....................292 Applied Mathematics ........................84 Chemical Engineering ......................297 Applied Physics ............................92 Cinematography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 Archaeology ...............................99 Civil Engineering ..........................311 Architecture and Architectural Engineering . . . . 107 Climate Engineering .......................319 Areology .................................114 Climate Modeling .........................324 Artificial Intelligence .......................121 Climatology ..............................331 Artificial Organs ...........................128 Clinical Engineering .......................338 Atmospheric Sciences ......................134 Cloning ..................................343 Audio Engineering ........................143 Coal Gasification ..........................350 Audiology and Hearing Aids .................149 Coal Liquefaction .........................355 Automated Processes and Servomechanisms . . . . 156 Coastal Engineering. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360 Avionics and Aircraft Instrumentation .........162 Coating Technology ........................366 Communication ...........................373 Barometry ................................169 Communications Satellite Technology .........380 Biochemical Engineering ...................175 Computed Tomography ....................386 Bioenergy Technologies ....................184 Computer-Aided Design and Manufacturing . . . . 392 v (c) 2012 Salem Press. All Rights Reserved. CONTENTS Common Units of Measure ................... vii Electronic Commerce ......................612 Complete List of Contents .................. xiii Electronic Materials Production ..............618 Electronics and Electronic Engineering .......624 Computer Engineering .....................399 Electron Microscopy .......................630 Computer Graphics ........................406 Electron Spectroscopy Analysis ...............634 Computer Languages, Compilers, and Tools . . . . 412 Endocrinology ............................640 Computer Networks ........................418 Energy-Efficient Building ...................647 Computer Science .........................424 Energy Storage Technologies ................653 Cracking .................................432 Engineering ..............................659 Criminology ..............................439 Engineering Mathematics ...................666 Cryogenics ...............................445 Engineering Seismology ....................671 Cryonics .................................451 Environmental Biotechnology ...............677 Cryptology and Cryptography ...............457 Environmental Chemistry ...................683 Environmental Engineering .................690 Demography and Demographics .............463 Environmental Microbiology ................697 Dentistry .................................469 Enzyme Engineering .......................704 Dermatology and Dermatopathology ..........476 Epidemiology .............................711 Detergents ...............................483 Epoxies and Resin Technologies .............718 Diffraction Analysis ........................490 Ergonomics ..............................724 Digital logic ..............................497 Erosion Control ...........................730 Diode Technology .........................503 Explosives Technologies ....................737 Distillation ...............................509 DNA Analysis .............................515 Fiber-Optic Communications ................743 DNA Sequencing ..........................522 Fiber Technologies ........................749 Drug Testing ..............................529 Fisheries Science ..........................755 Flood-Control Technology ..................763 Earthquake Engineering ....................535 Flow Reactor Systems .......................769 Earthquake Prediction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543 Fluid Dynamics ............................775 Ecological Engineering .....................549 Fluidized Bed Processing ....................779 Economic Geology .........................556 Food Preservation .........................785 Egg Production ...........................563 Food Science .............................792 Electrical Engineering ......................569 Forensic Science ...........................800 Electrical Measurement .....................577 Forestry ..................................808 Electric Automobile Technology .............584 Fossil Fuel Power Plants .....................814 Electrochemistry ..........................592 Fractal Geometry ..........................820 Electromagnet Technologies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600 Fuel Cell Technologies .....................829 Electrometallurgy ..........................606 v (c) 2012 Salem Press. All Rights Reserved. CONTENTS Common Units of Measure ................... vii Integrated-Circuit Design ..................1057 Complete List of Contents .................. xiii International System Of Units ..............1063 Internet and Web Engineering ..............1069 Game Theory .............................835 Ion Propulsion ...........................1075 Gasoline Processing and Production ..........840 Gastroenterology ..........................848 Jet Engine Technology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1081 Gas Turbine Technology ....................855 Gemology and Chrysology ..................862 Kinesiology ..............................1087 Genetically Modified Food Production ........868 Genetically Modified Organisms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 875 Landscape Architecture and Engineering . . . . . 1093 Genetic Engineering .......................881 Landscape Ecology .......................1098 Genomics ................................889 Land-Use Management ....................1104 Geoinformatics ............................895 Laser Interferometry ......................1111 Geometry ................................902 Laser Technologies .......................1117 Geriatrics and Gerontology ..................909 Light-Emitting Diodes .....................1123 Glass and Glassmaking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 917 Liquid Crystal Technology .................1129 Grammatology ............................922 Lithography .............................1135 Graphics Technologies .....................927 Long-Range Artillery ......................1141 Hazardous-Waste Disposal ...................933 Magnetic Resonance Imaging ...............1147 Heat-Exchanger Technologies ...............939 Magnetic Storage .........................1153 Heat Pumps ..............................945 Maps and Mapping .......................1159 Hematology ..............................953 Marine Mining ...........................1166 Herbology ................................959 Measurement and Units ...................1171 Histology .................................964 Mechanical Engineering ...................1178 Holographic Technology ....................970 Metabolic Engineering ....................1187 Horticulture ..............................975 Metallurgy ...............................1193 Human-Computer Interaction ...............981 Meteorology .............................1201 Human Genetic Engineering ................987 Microlithography and Nanolithography ......1208 Hybrid Vehicle Technologies ................996 Microscopy ..............................1214 Hydraulic Engineering ....................1001 Microwave Technology ....................1222 Hydroelectric Power Plants .................1007 Military Sciences and Combat Engineering . . . . 1228 Hydrology and Hydrogeology ...............1012 Mineralogy ..............................1236 Hydroponics .............................1019 Mirrors and Lenses .......................1243 Hypnosis ................................1026 Music Technology ........................1249 Immunology and Vaccination ...............1031 Nanotechnology ..........................1255 Industrial Fermentation ...................1037 Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering . . . 1261 Industrial Pollution Control ................1043 Navigation ..............................1266 Information Technology ...................1049 Nephrology ..............................1273 v (c) 2012 Salem Press. All Rights Reserved. CONTENTS Common Units of Measure ................... vii Plastics Engineering .......................1493 Complete List of Contents .................. xiii Pneumatics ..............................1502 Polymer Science ..........................1507 Neural Engineering .......................1279 Printing .................................1513 Neurology ...............................1286 Probability and Statistics ...................1519 Night Vision Technology ...................1294 Propulsion Technologies ...................1527 Noise Control ............................1299 Prosthetics ..............................1533 Nuclear Technology .......................1305 Proteomics and Protein Engineering .........1539 Numerical Analysis ........................1312 Psychiatry ...............................1546 Nursing .................................1317 Pulmonary Medicine ......................1553 Nutrition and Dietetics ....................1323 Pyrotechnics .............................1559 Obstetrics and Gynecology .................1329 Quality Control ..........................1565 Occupational Health ......................1335 Ocean and Tidal Energy Technologies .......1342 Radio ...................................1571 Oceanography ...........................1347 Radio Astronomy .........................1577 Ophthalmology ..........................1353 Radiology and Medical Imaging .............1583 Optical Storage ..........................1358 Recycling Technology .....................1590 Optics ..................................1364 Rehabilitation Engineering .................1596 Optometry ..............................1371 Remote Sensing ..........................1602 Orthopedics .............................1377 Reproductive Science and Engineering .......1610 Osteopathy ..............................1383 Rheumatology ...........................1616 Otorhinolaryngology ......................1388 Risk Analysis and Management ..............1621 Robotics ................................1626 Paleontology .............................1395 Paper Engineering ........................1402 Sanitary Engineering ......................1635 Parallel Computing .......................1408 Scanning Probe Microscopy ................1641 Parasitology .............................1414 Sewage Engineering. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1646 Pasteurization and Irradiation ..............1419 Silviculture ..............................1652 Pathology ...............................1425 Software Engineering .....................1659 Pattern Recognition .......................1431 Soil Science .............................1666 Pediatric Medicine and Surgery .............1436 Solar Energy .............................1672 Penology ................................1443 Somnology ..............................1681 Petroleum Extraction and Processing ........1448 Sonar Technologies .......................1687 Pharmacology ............................1455 Spacecraft Engineering ....................1692 Photography .............................1462 Space Environments for Humans ............1699 Photonics ...............................1469 Space Science ............................1705 Plane Surveying ..........................1474 Space Stations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1712 Planetology and Astrogeology ...............1480 Spectroscopy .............................1718 Plant Breeding and Propagation ............1487 v (c) 2012 Salem Press. All Rights Reserved. CONTENTS Common Units of Measure ................... vii Vehicular Accident Reconstruction ..........1899 Complete List of Contents .................. xiii Vertical Takeoff and Landing Aircraft ........1906 Veterinary Science ........................1912 Speech Therapy and Phoniatrics ............1725 Video Game Design and Programming .......1919 Sports Engineering .......................1731 Virology ................................1925 Steam Energy Technology ..................1737 Virtual Reality ............................1931 Steelmaking Technologies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1743 Viticulture and Enology ....................1938 Stem Cell Research and Technology .........1749 Structural Composites .....................1755 Water-Pollution Control ...................1943 Submarine Engineering ...................1764 Water Supply Systems .....................1949 Superconductivity and Superconducting Devices . . . .1770 Weight and Mass Measurement .............1956 Surface and Interface Science ..............1777 Wildlife Conservation .....................1961 Surgery .................................1782 Wind Power Technologies ..................1969 Wireless Technologies and Communication . . . 1975 Telecommunications ......................1789 Telemedicine ............................1796 Xenotransplantation ......................1981 Telephone Technology and Networks ........1802 Telescopy ...............................1809 Zone Refining ...........................1987 Television Technologies ...................1817 Zymology and Zymurgy ....................1992 Temperature Measurement .................1824 Thermal Pollution Control .................1830 Appendixes Time Measurement .......................1835 Biographical Dictionary of Scientists .........2001 Topology ................................1841 Glossary ................................2019 Toxicology ..............................1847 Timeline ................................2029 Transistor Technologies ...................1852 General Bibliography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2079 Transportation Engineering ................1858 Tribology ...............................1865 Indexes Trigonometry ............................1870 Category Index ..........................2101 Typography ..............................1876 Subject Index ............................2107 Ultrasonic Imaging .......................1881 Urban Planning and Engineering ...........1886 Urology .................................1892 v (c) 2012 Salem Press. All Rights Reserved. PUBLISHER’S NOTE Applied Science is a comprehensive five-volume Essay Length and Format reference set that examines the relationship be- Essays in the encyclopedic set range in length from tween science and technology, providing insight 3,000 to 4,000 words. All the entries begin with ready- into the many ways in which science affects daily reference top matter, including an indication of the life. Understanding the interconnectedness of the relevant discipline or field of study and a summary different and varied branches of science and tech- statement in which the writer explains why the topic nology is important for anyone preparing for a ca- is important to the study of the applied sciences. A reer or endeavor in science or technology. Toward selection of key terms and concepts within that major that end, essays look beyond basic principles to ex- field or technology is presented, with basic principles amine a wide range of topics, including industrial examined. Essays then place the subject field in his- and business applications, historical and social con- torical or technological perspective and examine texts, and the impact a particular field of science its development and implication. Also discussed are or technology will have on future jobs and careers. applications and applicable products and the field’s A career-oriented feature details core jobs within impact on industry. Cross-references direct readers the field, with a focus on fundamental and recom- to related topics, and further reading suggestions ac- mended coursework. company all articles. Applied Science is specifically designed for a high- school audience and is edited to align with secondary Special Features or high-school curriculum standards. The content Several features continue to distinguish this refer- is readily accessible, as well, to patrons of both aca- ence series from other works on applied science. The demic and university libraries. Librarians and gen- front matter includes a table detailing common units eral readers alike will also turn to this reference of measure, with equivalent units of measure pro- work for both basic information and current devel- vided for the user’s convenience. Additional features opments, from stem cell engineering to renewable are provided to assist in the retrieval of information. energy production, presented in accessible language An index illustrates the breadth of the reference with copious reference aids. Pedagogical tools and el- work’s coverage, directing the reader to appearances ements, including a bibliographical directory of sci- of important names, terms, and topics throughout entists, a timeline of major scientific milestones, and the text, and is followed by the category list, which a glossary of key terms and concepts, round out this groups article titles by general area of interest. Each unprecedented and unique resource. of these reader aids is cumulative, referencing the en- tire five volumes of the complete set. Scope of Coverage The back matter includes several appendixes and Comprising over 300 lengthy and alphabetically indexes, including a biographical dictionary of sci- arranged essays on a broad range of subject fields, entists, a compendium of the people most influen- from long-established engineering fields to cutting- tial in shaping the discoveries and technologies of edge fields such as micro- and nanotechnologies, this applied science. A time line provides a chronology excellent reference work addresses applied sciences of all major scientific events across significant in areas as diverse as aerospace, communications, en- fields and technologies, from agriculture to com- ergy, information, medical, military, transportation, puters to engineering to medical to space sciences. forensic, and food technologies. In particular, a mul- Additionally, a complete glossary covers all tech- titude of entries fall under the emerging fields of al- nical and other specialized terms used throughout lied health, environmental science, and electronics. the set, while a general bibliography offers a com- Applied Science is also richly illustrated with photos, prehensive list of works on applied science for stu- charts, and tables, as well as “Fascinating Facts” re- dents seeking out more information on a particular lated to each applied-science field. field or subject. vii (c) 2012 Salem Press. All Rights Reserved.
The list of books you might like
