Applied behavior analysis

759 Pages·10.051 MB·English

by  Cooper, John O., Heron, Timothy E., Heward, William L

A
p
p
Applied Behavior Analysis
l
i
e
d Cooper Heron Heward

B
Second Edition
e
h
a
v
i
o
r

A
n
a
l
y
s
i
s

C
o
o
p
e
r

H
e
r
o
n

H
e
w
a
r
d

S
e
c
o
n
d

E
d
i
t
ISBN 978-1-29202-321-2 io
n
9 781292 023212
Applied Behavior Analysis
Cooper Heron Heward
Second Edition
ISBN 10: 1-292-02321-X
ISBN 13: 978-1-292-02321-2
Pearson Education Limited
Edinburgh Gate
Harlow
Essex CM20 2JE
England and Associated Companies throughout the world
Visit us on the World Wide Web at: www.pearsoned.co.uk
© Pearson Education Limited 2014
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted
in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without either the
prior written permission of the publisher or a licence permitting restricted copying in the United Kingdom
issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS.
All trademarks used herein are the property of their respective owners. The use of any trademark
in this text does not vest in the author or publisher any trademark ownership rights in such
trademarks, nor does the use of such trademarks imply any affi liation with or endorsement of this
book by such owners.
ISBN 10: 1-292-02321-X
ISBN 13: 978-1-292-02321-2
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Printed in the United States of America
111122232469247924711268605612482
P E A R S O N C U S T O M L I B R AR Y
Table of Contents
Glossary
John O. Cooper, Timothy E. Heron, William L. Heward 1
1. Definition and Characteristics of Applied Behavior Analysis
John O. Cooper, Timothy E. Heron, William L. Heward 22
2. Basic Concepts
John O. Cooper, Timothy E. Heron, William L. Heward 44
3. Selecting and Defining Target Behaviors
John O. Cooper, Timothy E. Heron, William L. Heward 68
4. Measuring Behavior
John O. Cooper, Timothy E. Heron, William L. Heward 92
5. Improving and Assessing the Quality of Behavioral Measurement
John O. Cooper, Timothy E. Heron, William L. Heward 122
6. Constructing and Interpreting Graphic Displays of Behavioral Data
John O. Cooper, Timothy E. Heron, William L. Heward 146
7. Analyzing Behavior Change: Basic Assumptions and Strategies
John O. Cooper, Timothy E. Heron, William L. Heward 178
8. Reversal and Alternating Treatments Designs
John O. Cooper, Timothy E. Heron, William L. Heward 196
9. Multiple Baseline and Changing Criterion Designs
John O. Cooper, Timothy E. Heron, William L. Heward 220
10. Planning and Evaluating Applied Behavior Analysis Research
John O. Cooper, Timothy E. Heron, William L. Heward 245
11. Positive Reinforcement
John O. Cooper, Timothy E. Heron, William L. Heward 276
12. Negative Reinforcement
John O. Cooper, Timothy E. Heron, William L. Heward 311
I
333344444445555666247902356891358268444086448180683245
13. Schedules of Reinforcement
John O. Cooper, Timothy E. Heron, William L. Heward 324
14. Punishment by Stimulus Presentation
John O. Cooper, Timothy E. Heron, William L. Heward 344
15. Punishment by Removal of a Stimulus
John O. Cooper, Timothy E. Heron, William L. Heward 374
16. Motivating Operations
John O. Cooper, Timothy E. Heron, William L. Heward 390
17. Stimulus Control
John O. Cooper, Timothy E. Heron, William L. Heward 408
18. Imitation
John O. Cooper, Timothy E. Heron, William L. Heward 426
19. Chaining
John O. Cooper, Timothy E. Heron, William L. Heward 434
20. Shaping
John O. Cooper, Timothy E. Heron, William L. Heward 454
21. Extinction
John O. Cooper, Timothy E. Heron, William L. Heward 468
22. Differential Reinforcement
John O. Cooper, Timothy E. Heron, William L. Heward 481
23. Antecedent Interventions
John O. Cooper, Timothy E. Heron, William L. Heward 498
24. Functional Behavior Assessment
John O. Cooper, Timothy E. Heron, William L. Heward 510
25. Verbal Behavior
John O. Cooper, Timothy E. Heron, William L. Heward 536
26. Contingency Contracting, Token Economy, and Group Contingencies
John O. Cooper, Timothy E. Heron, William L. Heward 558
27. Self-Management
John O. Cooper, Timothy E. Heron, William L. Heward 583
28. Generalization and Maintenance of Behavior Change
John O. Cooper, Timothy E. Heron, William L. Heward 622
29. Ethical Considerations for Applied Behavior Analysts
John O. Cooper, Timothy E. Heron, William L. Heward 664
Bibliography
John O. Cooper, Timothy E. Heron, William L. Heward 685
II
729
Index 729
III
IV
Glossary
A-B design A two-phase experimental design consisting of havior; time-filling or interim activities (e.g., doodling,
a pre-treatment baseline condition (A) followed by a idle talking, smoking, drinking) that are induced by sched-
treatment condition (B). ules of reinforcement during times when reinforcement is
A-B-A design A three-phase experimental design consisting unlikely to be delivered. Also called schedule-induced
of an initial baseline phase (A) until steady state respond- behavior.
ing (or countertherapeutic trend) is obtained, an interven- affirmation of the consequent A three-step form of reason-
tion phase in which the treatment condition (B) is ing that begins with a true antecedent–consequent (if-A-
implemented until the behavior has changed and steady then-B) statement and proceeds as follows: (1) If A is true,
state responding is obtained, and a return to baseline con- then B is true; (2) B is found to be true; (3) therefore, A is
ditions (A) by withdrawing the independent variable to true. Although other factors could be responsible for the
see whether responding “reverses” to levels observed in truthfulness of A, a sound experiment affirms several if-A-
the initial baseline phase. (See A-B-A-B design, reversal then-B possibilities, each one reducing the likelihood of
design, withdrawal design.) factors other than the independent variable being respon-
A-B-A-B design An experimental design consisting of (1)an sible for the observed changes in behavior.
initial baseline phase (A) until steady state responding (or alternating treatments design An experimental design in
countertherapeutic trend) is obtained, (2) an initial inter- which two or more conditions (one of which may be a no-
vention phase in which the treatment variable (B) is im- treatment control condition) are presented in rapidly alter-
plemented until the behavior has changed and steady state nating succession (e.g., on alternating sessions or days)
responding is obtained, (3) a return to baseline conditions independent of the level of responding; differences in re-
(A) by withdrawing the independent variable to see sponding between or among conditions are attributed to the
whether responding “reverses” to levels observed in the effects of the conditions (also called concurrent schedule
initial baseline phase, and (4) a second intervention phase design, multielement design, multiple schedule design).
(B) to see whether initial treatment effects are replicated alternative schedule Provides reinforcement whenever the
(also called reversal design, withdrawal design). requirement of either a ratio schedule or an interval sched-
abative effect (of a motivating operation) A decrease in the ule—the basic schedules that makeup the alternative
current frequency of behavior that has been reinforced by schedule—is met, regardless of which of the component
the stimulus that is increased in reinforcing effectiveness schedule’s requirements is met first.
by the same motivating operation. For example, food in- anecdotal observation A form of direct, continuous obser-
gestion abates (decreases the current frequency of) be- vation in which the observer records a descriptive, tem-
havior that has been reinforced by food. porally sequenced account of all behavior(s) of interest
ABC recording See anecdotal observation. and the antecedent conditions and consequences for those
abolishing operation (AO) A motivating operation that de- behaviors as those events occur in the client’s natural en-
creases the reinforcing effectiveness of a stimulus, object, vironment (also called ABC recording).
or event. For example, the reinforcing effectiveness of food antecedent An environmental condition or stimulus change
is abolished as a result of food ingestion. existing or occurring prior to a behavior of interest.
accuracy (of measurement) The extent to which observed antecedent intervention A behavior change strategy that
values, the data produced by measuring an event, match the manipulates contingency-independent antecedent stimuli
true state, or true values, of the event as it exists in nature. (motivating operations). (See noncontingent reinforce-
(See observed valueand true value.) ment,high-probability request sequence,and functional
adjunctive behavior Behavior that occurs as a collateral ef- communication training.Contrast with antecedent con-
fect of a schedule of periodic reinforcement for other be- trol, a behavior change intervention that manipulates
From Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition. John O. Cooper, Timothy E. Heron, William L. Heward. Copyright ©2007 by Pearson
Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
1
Glossary
contingency-dependent consequence events to affect stim- avoidance contingency A contingency in which a response
ulus control.) prevents or postpones the presentation of a stimulus.
antecedent stimulus class A set of stimuli that share a com- (Compare with escape contingency.)
mon relationship. All stimuli in an antecedent stimulus B-A-B design A three-phase experimental design that begins
class evoke the same operant behavior, or elicit the same with the treatment condition. After steady state respond-
respondent behavior. (See arbitrary stimulus class, fea- ing has been obtained during the initial treatment phase
ture stimulus class.) (B), the treatment variable is withdrawn (A) to see whether
applied behavior analysis (ABA) The science in which tac- responding changes in the absence of the independent vari-
tics derived from the principles of behavior are applied to able. The treatment variable is then reintroduced (B) in an
improve socially significant behavior and experimentaton attempt to recapture the level of responding obtained dur-
is used to identify the variables responsible for the im- ing the first treatment phase.
provement in behavior. backup reinforcers Tangible objects, activities, or privileges
arbitrary stimulus class Antecedent stimuli that evoke the that serve as reinforcers and that can be purchased with
same response but do not resemble each other in physical tokens.
form or share a relational aspect such as bigger or under backward chaining A teaching procedure in which a
(e.g., peanuts, cheese, coconut milk, and chicken breasts trainer completes all but the last behavior in a chain,
are members of an arbitrary stimulus class if they evoke the which is performed by the learner, who then receives re-
response “sources of protein”). (Compare to feature stim- inforcement for completing the chain. When the learner
ulus class.) shows competence in performing the final step in the
artifact An outcome or result that appears to exist because of chain, the trainer performs all but the last two behaviors
the way it is measured but in fact does not correspond to in the chain, the learner emits the final two steps to com-
what actually occurred. plete the chain, and reinforcement is delivered. This se-
ascending baseline A data path that shows an increasing quence is continued until the learner completes the entire
trend in the response measure over time. (Compare with chain independently.
descending baseline.) backward chaining with leaps ahead A backward chain-
audience Anyone who functions as a discriminative stimulus ing procedure in which some steps in the task analysis are
evoking verbal behavior. Different audiences may control skipped; used to increase the efficiency of teaching long
different verbal behavior about the same topic because of behavior chains when there is evidence that the skipped
a differential reinforcement history. Teens may describe steps are in the learner’s repertoire.
the same event in different ways when talking to peers ver- bar graph A simple and versatile graphic format for sum-
sus parents. marizing behavioral data; shares most of the line graph’s
autoclitic A secondary verbal operant in which some aspect features except that it does not have distinct data points
of a speaker’s own verbal behavior functions as an SDor representing successive response measures through time.
an MO for additional speaker verbal behavior. The auto- Also called a histogram.
clitic relation can be thought of as verbal behavior about baseline A condition of an experiment in which the inde-
verbal behavior. pendent variable is not present; data obtained during base-
automatic punishment Punishment that occurs independent line are the basis for determining the effects of the
of the social mediation by others (i.e., a response product independent variable; a control condition that does not
serves as a punisher independent of the social environ- necessarily mean the absence of instruction or treatment,
ment). only the absence of a specific independent variable of ex-
automatic reinforcement Reinforcement that occurs inde- perimental interest.
pendent of the social mediation of others (e.g., scratching baseline logic A term sometimes used to refer to the exper-
an insect bite relieves the itch). imental reasoning inherent in single-subject experimental
automaticity (of reinforcement) Refers to the fact that be- designs; entails three elements: prediction, verification,
havior is modified by its consequences irrespective of the and replication. (See steady state strategy.)
person’s awareness; a person does not have to recognize or behavior The activity of living organisms; human behavior
verbalize the relation between her behavior and a rein- includes everything that people do. A technical definition:
forcing consequence, or even know that a consequence “that portion of an organism’s interaction with its envi-
has occurred, for reinforcement to “work.” (Contrast with ronment that is characterized by detectable displacement
automatic reinforcement.) in space through time of some part of the organism and
aversive stimulus In general, an unpleasant or noxious stim- that results in a measurable change in at least one aspect
ulus; more technically, a stimulus change or condition that of the environment” (Johnston & Pennypacker, 1993a,
functions (a) to evoke a behavior that has terminated it in p. 23). (See operant behavior, respondent behavior, re-
the past; (b) as a punisher when presented following be- sponse, response class.)
havior, and/or (c)as a reinforcer when withdrawn follow- behavior-altering effect (of a motivating operation) An
ing behavior. alteration in the current frequency of behavior that has
2
Glossary
been reinforced by the stimulus that is altered in effec- decreases the rate of responding on that component is ac-
tiveness by the same motivating operation. For example, companied by a change in the response rate in the oppo-
the frequency of behavior that has been reinforced with site direction on the other, unaltered component of the
food is increased or decreased by food deprivation or food schedule.
ingestion. behavioral cusp A behavior that has sudden and dramatic
behavior chain A sequence of responses in which each re- consequences that extend well beyond the idiosyncratic
sponse produces a stimulus change that functions as con- change itself because it exposes the person to new envi-
ditioned reinforcement for that response and as a ronments, reinforcers, contingencies, responses, and stim-
discriminative stimulus for the next response in the chain; ulus controls. (See pivotal behavior.)
reinforcement for the last response in a chain maintains behavioral momentum A metaphor to describe a rate of re-
the reinforcing effectiveness of the stimulus changes pro- sponding and its resistance to change following an alter-
duced by all previous responses in the chain. ation in reinforcement conditions. The momentum metaphor
behavior chain interruption strategy An intervention that has also been used to describe the effects produced by the
relies on the participant’s skill in performing the critical el- high-probability (high-p) request sequence.
ements of a chain independently; the chain is interrupted behaviorism The philosophy of a science of behavior; there
occasionally so that another behavior can be emitted. are various forms of behaviorism. (See methodological
behavior chain with a limited hold A contingency that spec- behaviorism, radical behaviorism.)
ifies a time interval by which a behavior chain must be believability The extent to which the researcher convinces
completed for reinforcement to be delivered. herself and others that the data are trustworthy and de-
behavior change tactic A technologically consistent method serve interpretation. Measures of interobserver agreement
for changing behavior derived from one or more princi- (IOA) are the most often used index of believability in ap-
ples of behavior (e.g., differential reinforcement of other plied behavior analysis. (See interobserver agreement
behavior, response cost); possesses sufficient generality (IOA).)
across subjects, settings, and/or behaviors to warrant its bonus response cost A procedure for implementing response
codification and dissemination. cost in which the person is provided a reservoir of rein-
behavior checklist A checklist that provides descriptions of forcers that are removed in predetermined amounts con-
specific skills (usually in hierarchical order) and the con- tingent on the occurrence of the target behavior.
ditions under which each skill should be observed. Some calibration Any procedure used to evaluate the accuracy of
checklists are designed to assess one particular behavior or a measurement system and, when sources of error are
skill area. Others address multiple behaviors or skill areas. found, to use that information to correct or improve the
Most use a Likert scale to rate responses. measurement system.
behavior trap An interrelated community of contingen- celeration The change (acceleration or deceleration) in rate
cies of reinforcement that can be especially powerful, of responding over time; based on count per unit of time
producing substantial and long-lasting behavior changes. (rate); expressed as a factor by which responding is ac-
Effective behavior traps share four essential features: celerating or decelerating (multiplying or dividing); dis-
(a) They are “baited” with virtually irresistible rein- played with a trend line on a Standard Celeration Chart.
forcers that “lure” the student to the trap; (b) only a low- Celerationis a generic term without specific reference to
effort response already in the student’s repertoire is accelerating or decelerating rates of response. (See
necessary to enter the trap; (c) once inside the trap, in- Standard Celeration Chart.)
terrelated contingencies of reinforcement motivate the celeration time period A unit of time (e.g., per week, per
student to acquire, extend, and maintain targeted aca- month) in which celeration is plotted on a Standard Cel-
demic and/or social skills; and (d) they can remain ef- eration Chart. (See celerationand celeration trend line.)
fective for a long time because students shows few, if celeration trend line The celeration trend line is measured
any, satiation effects. as a factor by which rate multiplies or divides across the
behavioral assessment A form of assessment that involves celeration time periods (e.g., rate per week, rate per month,
a full range of inquiry methods (observation, interview, rate per year, and rate per decade). (See celeration.)
testing, and the systematic manipulation of antecedent or chained schedule A schedule of reinforcement in which the
consequence variables) to identify probable antecedent response requirements of two or more basic schedules
and consequent controlling variables. Behavioral assess- must be met in a specific sequence before reinforcement
ment is designed to discover resources, assets, significant is delivered; a discriminative stimulus is correlated with
others, competing contingencies, maintenance and gener- each component of the schedule.
ality factors, and possible reinforcer and/or punishers that chaining Various procedures for teaching behavior chains.
surround the potential target behavior. (See backward chaining, backward chaining with
behavioral contract See contingency contract. leaps ahead, behavior chain, forward chaining.)
behavioral contrast The phenomenon in which a change in changing criterion design An experimental design in which
one component of a multiple schedule that increases or an initial baseline phase is followed by a series of treatment
3