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Techniques of Water-Resources Investigations of the United States Geological Survey CHAPTER Dl APPLICATION OF SURFACE GEOPHYSICS TO GROUND-WATER INVESTIGATIONS By A. A. R. Zohdy, G. P. Eaton, and D. R. Mabey BOOK 2 COLLECTION OF ENVIRONMENTAL DATA DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR MANUEL LUJAN, Jr., Secretary U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY Dallas 1. Peck, Director Any use of trade, product, of firm names in this publication is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply endorsement by the U.S. Government First printing 1974 Second printing 1980 Third printing 1984 Fourth printing 1990 UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1974 For sale by the Books and Open-File Reports Section, U.S. Geological Survey, Federal Center, Box 25425, Denver, CO 80225 PREFACE The series of manuals on techniques describes procedures for planning and executing specialized work in water-resources investigations. The no terial is grouped under major subject headings called “Books” and f,ur- ther subdivided into sections and chapters. Section D of Book 2 is on sur- face geophysical methods. The unit of publication, the chapter, is limited to a narrow field of subject matter. This format permits flexibility in revision and publication as the need arises. “Application of surface geophysics to ground-water in- vestigations” is the first chapter to be published under Section D of Book 2. X CONTENTS PUS Abstract ________________________________ 1 Electrical methods-Continued Introduction _____________________________ 1 Direct current-resistivitiy method-Continued Design of geophysical surveys _________ 1 Analysis of electrical sounding curves- Collection and reduction of geophysical Continued data ______________________________ Quantitative interpretation- Interpretation ---__-_--__---_-_-__--- Continued The literature of exploration geophysics, Analytical methods of in- Electrical methods, by A. A. R. Zohdy ___-_ terpretation-Continued Telluric current method ______________ Three-layer interpre- Magneto-telluric method ______________ tation _----- 42 Spontaneous polarisation and Four-layer (or more) streaming potentials ___________- 8 interpretation ___- 44 Direct current-resistivity method ___-_ a Empirical and semi-empirical Definition and units of resistivity -_ 8 methods of interpreta- Rock resistivities _________________ 9 tion __- __-__-- -_- ----- 45 Principles of the resistivity method, 9 Moore’s cumulative red5 Electrode configuration --__--___-- 10 tivity method -_-__ --__- 45 Wenner array ------------.-,-- 10 Barnes’ layer method -__-- 46 Lee-partitioning array _--___-- 11 Applications of reeistivity surveys Schlumberger array --------s 11 in ground-water studies ----- 47 Dipole-dipole arrays _____-____ 11 Mapping buried stream Electrical sounding and horizontal channels ___________--_-_ 47 profiling _______________________ 13 Geothermal studies ---__----- 50 Comparison of Wenner, Schlum- Mapping fresh-salt water in- berger, and dipole-dipole m-sure- terfaces ____-__--_---- 52 ments _________________________ 16 Mapping the water table ------ 54 Problem of defining probing depth,, 20 Mapping clay layers -_--_----- 55 Advantages of using logarithmic Electromagnetic methods ___--_-_---- - 56 coordinates ____________________ 20 Induced polarization methods --------- - 56 Geoelectric parameters __-_________ 22 Relationship between apparent Types of electrical sounding curves chargeability and apparent IX?- over horizontally stratified media- 24 sistivity ________-__-_---------- 61 Electrical sounding over laterally Induced polarization sounding and inhomugeneous media ___________ 26 profiling __----_--------------- 61 Limitations of the resistivity method 27 Applications of induced polarization Analysis of electrical sounding in ground-water surveys ---e--s 63 curves ---------------__------- 32 References cited ___________-_____-__- 63 Qualitative interpretation --e-e 33 Seismology, by G. P. Eaton __-_--____--_- 67 Determination and use of Elementary principles _---_---___----- 68 total transverse resist- Reflection versus refraction shooting _- 70 ance, T, from sounding Comparison of the refleotion and refrac- curves -----L---m------- 34 tion seismic methods in practice ----- 72 Determination of total Seismic refraction measurement8 in longitudinal conductance, hydrogeology ________-_____-_- - 73 S, from sounding curves- 36 Effect of departures from the simple Determination of average stratified model _- _____--___ 73 longitudinal resistivity, The multilayered model _____-- 73 ~1, from a Qounding Effect of a regular increase of curve _-__----__- 36 velocity with depth ____--_- - 73 Distortion of sounding Effect of dipping layers _---_- 73 curves by extraneous Effect of a sloping ground influences _______--___-- 37 surface _____-__-_---_--_-_- 75 Quantitative interpretation __- 39 Effect of a buried steplike re- Analytical methods of in- fractor _____--_.-_---___-_- - 75 terpretation --mm_-- 39 Effect of a discordant steep Two-layer interpreta- sided body -------------m-- 75 tion ______-_-__-- 41 Effect of a thin refractor ----- 76 V VI Seismology, by G. P. Baton-Continued Gravimetry-Continued Seismic refraction measuremente Reduction of gravity data-Continued in hydrogeology-Continued Terrain correction _____-__-_---- -- 92 Effect of departures from the Drift correction ___________ - --___ 93 simple stratified model-Continued Regional gradients ________------- 93 Effect of a velocity inversion at Bouguer anomaly ___________ -_--- 94 depth --------------------- 76 Interpretation of gravity data -___--- 94 Effect of a refractor of ir- Ambiguity __--------_--------_-- 94 regular conflguration ------ 76 Interpretation techniques. __- __-- - 97 Effect of lateral varying SigniAcance and use of den&y velocities _____--__-_____ 76 meaeurements _-______-_- 97 Corrections applied to seismic refraction Application of gravimetry to hydra- measurements ______________________ 76 geology _--------_ _------.-- 100 Elevation correction _-__--________-__- 77 Aquifer geometry _________..----- - 100 Weathered-layer correction ___________ 77 Estimating average total porosity 100 Surface method ___----..-- 100 Errors in seismic refraction measure Borehole method __--..-- 104 ments _____________________________ 77 Effect of ground-water levels on Application of seismic refraction meas- gravity readings ________..------ 105 urements in hydrogeology _____- 79 References cited ____------e-m’ m..----m - 106 Mapping buried channels _________ 79 Magnetic methods, by D. R. Mabey _..--- 107 Measuring depths to the water table 80 Magnetic surveys ________-----.- 108 Determining the groee stratigraphy Magnetic properties ________-_-..-- 109 of an aquifer __________________ 81 Design of magnetic surveys _-_.._-- - 109 Mapping lateral facies variations in Data reduction _____-_- -----m-.m------ 110 an aquifer _____________________ 82 Interpretation of magnetic data ._---- 110 Estimating porosity from seismic Examplee of magnetic surveye _.------- 111 wave-velocity values _~~_~~~~~~~~ 83 Gem Valley, Idaho _____-__-__-_--- 111 References cited _____________________ 84 Antelope Valley, California .----- 113 Gravimetry, by G. P. Eaton __-_--------- 85 References cited _____________-.-_---- - 116 Reduction of gravity data ___________- Cost of geophysical surveys in 1970 ._----- 116 Latitude correction ________-_____- 89 Electrical methods ______________-__-- 116 Tidal correction __-_-------------- 89 Gravity surveys __________-___.-____-- 116 Altitude corrections _----_------- - 89 Seismic surveys. _________________--_-- 116 Free-air correction __-__-_--- 90 Magrmtic surveys _____________,._____ - 116 Bouguer correction __-_--__--- 90 FIGURES 1. Diagram showing flow of telluric currant over an anticline _---- -__---------------_--~------- 6 2. Examples of electrode arrays for measuring 1~and y components of telluric fleld ------..------- 6 3. Telluric map of the Aquitaine basin, France _____________________ -_---_-------------.-------- 7 4. Diagram showing the relationship between a point source of current 2 (at origin of coordi- nates) in an isotropic med.ium of resistivity p and the potential V at any point P ---_------ 9 5. Wenner, Lee-partitioning, and Schlumberger electrode arrays __---___--_____--------~------- 11 6. Dipole-dipole arrays ________ ____________________----------------------------------~-------- 12 7. Graph showing horizontal proAle and interpretations over a shallow gravel deposit in California using Wenner array _______________________________ ------_-_---------------------.-------- 14 8. Map of apparent resistivity near Campbell, Calif -_----__-________-__----------------------- 15 9. Graph showing horisontkl profiles over a buried stream channel ueing two electrode spacings: a = 30 feet and a = 60 feet __-_______________-___-------------------------------------- 16 10. Electrode arrays ___-________________----------------------------------------------------- 17 11. Graph showing comparison between four-layer Schlumberger and Wenner sounding CUNea 18 12. Correct displacements on a Schlumberger sounding curve and method of smoothing _---------- 19 13. Logarithmic plot of sounding curves _____-________-__-__------------------------------------ 21 14. Linear plot of sounding curves ------__-_---____-_------- -_-----__-_____------------------- 22 15. Columnar prism used in deflning geoelectric parameters of a section __-__-__-------_--------- 23 CONTENTS VII 16. Comparison between two-layer Schlumberger cm for pdp = 10 and O.l;h = 1 meter for both curves ___________________-________________ ____________________-------------------- 25 1’7. Comparison between two-layer azimuthal (or equatorial) and radial (or polar) soundiig CUFV~B 26 18. Examples of the four types of three-layer Schlumberger sounding curves for three-layer Earth models ________________________________________- 27 19. Examples of three of the eight posible types of Schlumberger sounding curves for four-layer Earth models ____________________________ __________-___--__---------------------------- 28 20. Examples of the variation of Schlumberger sounding curves across a vertical contact at variou8 azimuths ________________________________________--------------------------------------- 29 21. Examples of the variation of Winner sounding curves across a vertical contact at various azi- muths ___________-_______________________c____- SO 22. Examples of diferent types of cusrve equivalence ____---------------------------------------- 31 23. Map of apparent resistivity near Rome, Italy __-___------- ---__---------------------------- 33 24. Sections of apparent reaistivity near Minidoka, Idaho. Values on contour lines designate apparent resistivities in ohm-meters. Snake River basalt ,thickens toward the north --------------- 34 25. Graphical determination of total transverse resistance from a K-type, Schlumberger sound- ing curve __-_____-_____-_____- 35 26. Profile of total transverse resistance values T in ohm-meters squared, near Minidoka, Idaho -- 36 27. Graphical determination of total longitudinal conductance S from an H-type Schlumberger sounding curve ____________________-__- 37 28. Transformation of a Schlumberger KH-type curve into ‘a polar dipole-dipole curve to evaluate P’nln = pi and H = SpL ________________________________________------------------------ 38 29. Distortion of sounding cures by cusps caused by lateral inhomogeneities ------------------ 39 30. Example ‘of a narrow peak on a K-type curve, caused by the limited lateral extent of a resistive middle layer ____-___________-_______________________------------------------------------ 40 31. Example of a distorted HK-Schlumberger curve and the method of correction ------------_____ 41 32. Examples of discontinuities on Schlumherger curves caused by a near vertical, dikelike structure _ 42 33. Two-layer master set of sounding CUNeS for the Schlumberger array -_-------_----_______ 43 34. Interpretation of a two-layer Schlumberger curve (p/p = 5) ---------------------------- 44 35. Interpretation of a three-layer Schlumberger H-type curve __________________________________ 46 36. Interpretation of a four-layer Schlumberger curve by the auxiliary point method using ,two three-layer curves ________________________________________----------------------------- 46 37. Map of San Jose area, California, showing areaa studied __________________________________ 48 38. Map of apparent resistivity in Penitencia area., California ___________________________________ 49 39. Resistivity profile and geologic section, Penitencia, Calif ____________________________________ 50 40. Map of apparent resiativity near Campbell, Calif., obtained with Wane, array at a P 30 feet and showing location of Section AA’ ________________________________________------- 61 41. Geoelectric section and drilling results near Campbell, Calif ___________________________________ 52 42. Apparent .resistivity profile and geologic interpretation over buried channel, near Salisbury, Md - 53 43. Buried stream channel near Bremerhaven, West Germany, mapped from electric sounding (after Halenbach, 1953) ___________-______-_____________________--~-------------------- 64 44. Map of apparent reaistivity in the Bad-Krozingen geothermal area, Germany ________________ 56 45. Map of apparent resistivity in geothermal areas in New Zealand ____ - ________________________ 66 46. Map of apparent resisbivity in White Sands area, New Mexico. for electrode a_p acing- AB/2 = 1,000 feet ____-__-__-__- 67 47. Map of White Sands area, New Mexico, showing isobaths of the lower surface of fresh-water aquifer __----__-__-__-__-____---------------------------------------------------------- 58 48. Examples of Schlumberger sounding curves obtained in the Wmhite Sands area, New Mexico ___ 59 49. Block diagram of Pohakuloa-Humuula area, Hawaii ________________________________________-- 59 50. Geoelectric section north of Bowie, Ariz. ________________ - __________________________________ 60 51. Examples of Schlumberger sounding cures obtained near Bowie, Ariz ________________________ 60 52. Apparent resistivity and apparent chargeability IP sounding curves for a four-layer model ----- 61 53. G-eoelectric Section, VES and IP sounding cures of alluvial deposits in Crimea --------------- 62 54. Schematic ray-path diagram for seismic energy generated at source S and picked up at geophone G ________________________________________------------------------------- -- ---- -- ----- - 69 55. Huygens’ construction for a head wave generated at the VI-V2 interface ____--- ---- ----------- 70 56. Seismic wave fronts and traveltime plot for an idealized horizontally layered model ----------- 71 57. Schematic traveltime curves for idealized nonhomogeneous geologic models ---------------- 74 VIII CONTENTS 68. Comparison of 9’7 seismic refraction depth determinations versus drill-hole depths at the same lo- calities _______ ____ _--_----____-_____--_--------------------------------------------- ---- 78 69. Seismic cross section, drill-hole data, and traveltime curves for a buried Tertiary stream dhannel in northern Nevada County, Calif ____________________------------------~---------------- 79 60. Structure contours on the buried bedrock surface of the Passaic River Valley, northern New Jer- sey, based on seismic refraction and drill-hole measurements ____________________________ 80 61. Seismic cross se&ion of the Jordan Valley ea& of Great Salt Lake, Utah ----_--------------~ 81 62. Distribution of observed compressional wave velocities in unsaturated sediments of the ancestral Miami River Valley, Ohio ___-__-___ ____________________--------------------------------- 82 63. Plot of observed porosity versus compressimal wave velocity for unconsolidated sedimerrts ____ 83 64. Gravitational attraotion at point P due to buried mass dm _____-_______------_______ - ---- - 86 86. A, Observed gravity profile for a buried sphere in a homogeneous rigid nonrotating Earth. B, Sources of variation present in gravitational measurements made in the search for a buried sphere in a schematic, but real, Earth model ____________________-----------------.~------ 88 66. Bouguer gravity profiles across a low ridge based on six different densities employed in calcu- lating the Bouguer correction ___________________________ - _______________________________ 91 67. Schematic models and associated Bouguer gravity anomalies for idealized geologic bodie,s ____- 96 68. Plot of observed compressional wave velocities versus density for sediments and sedimentary rocks 99 69. A, Complete Bouguer-gravity map of a buried pre-glacial channel of the Connecticut River. B, Complete Bouguer-gravity map of part of San Georgonio Pass, Calif _____________._______ 101 70. A, Distribution of outcrops and structure contours on the buried bedrock surface, Perris Valley, Calif. B, Bouguer-gravity map of Perris Valley, Calif _________-___ - __________ - ___________ 102 71. Profiles of observed Bouguer gravity, residual gravity, and calculated porosity for Perris Valley, ,Calif ________________________________________------------------------------------------ 103 72. In situ density log determined with a borehole gravity meter: drill hole UCe-18, Hot Creek Val- by, Nev ________________________________________---------------------------------------- 104 73. Plots of gravity values versus depth to the water table for aquifers having a porosity of 33 percent and specific retentions of 0 percent and 20 percent, respectively ___-- ______-_----- 106 74. Aeromagnetic profile at 230 m above Gem Valley, Idaho __-__-__-________-__--------------- 112 76. Aeromagnetic map of Gem Valley and adjoining areas, Idaho _________--_____________________ 114 76. Gravity and aeroma8netic profiles acrose Cenozoic basin in Antelope Valley, Calif __________- 116 Metric Units of Measurement Many of the analyses and compilations in this report were made in metric unite of measurements. The equivalent English units are given in the text and illustrations where appropriate. To convert metric units to English units, the following conversion factors should be used: Mebrie units Length in centimeters (cm) ___---------- x0.394 = inches in meters (m) ____ ----_- __________ X 3.281 -feet in kilometers (km) ______________ X 0.6214 =miles Area in square kilometers (km*) _____-_-- x 0.386 = square miles Slope in meters per kilometer (m/km) ---- X6.28 =feet per imile APPLICATION OF SURFACE GEOPHYSICS TO GROUND-WATE.RINVESTIGATIONS By A. A. R. Zohdy, C. P. Eaton, and D. R. Mabey Abstract applications and interpretation in selected geohydro- logic environments. This manual reviews the standard methods of sur- The objective of the manual is to provide the hy- face geophysics applicable to ground-water investi- drogeologist with a sufficient understanding of the gations. It covers electrical methods, seismic and capabilities, limitations, and relative cost of gee- gravity methods, and magnetic methods. nhvsical methods to make sound decisions as to The general physical principles underlying each ah-& use of these methods is desirable. The manual method and its capabilities and limitations are’ de- also provides enough information for the hydrogeolo- scribed. Possibilities for non-uniqueness of interpre- gist to work with a geophysicist in designing geophys- tation of geophysical results are noted. Examples ical surveys that differentiate. significant hydro- of actual use of the methods are given to illustrate geologic changes. Introduction This manual is a brief review of the stage of development and testing ; thus, standard methods of surface geophysical ex- their eventual importance cannot be ap- ploration and their application in ground- praised at this time. Borehole geophysical water investigations. It explains the capabili- techniques will not be discussed here except ties of exploration geophysics and, in a gen- as they relate to surface or airborne sur- eral way, the methods of obtaining, process- veys. ing, and interpreting geophysical data. A In the discussions that follow each of the minimum of mathematics is employed, and major geophysical methods will be briefly the scopeis limited to an elementary discus- described with emphasis on the applications sion of theory, a description of the methods, and limitations in ground-water investiga- and examples of their applications. It is in tions. A few examples of successful applica- no sense intended as a textbook on applied tion of each method will be described. geophysics. Rather its aim is to provide the hydrogeologist with a rudimentary under- standing of how surface geophysical meas- Design of Geophysical urements may be of help to him. Many of the standard methods of geophysical explora- Surveys tion are described, but those used most ex- tensively in ground-water investigations Geophysical surveys can be useful in the are stressed. The rapidly developing tech- study of most subsurface geologic problems. niques of geophysical exploration involving Geophysics also can contribute to many in- measurements in the microwave, infrared, vestigations that are concerned primarily and ultraviolet portions of the electro- with surface geology. However, geophysical magnetic spectrum are not included. The ap- surveys are not always the most effective plication of these “remote sensors” to method of obtaining the information needed. ground-water investigations is in an early For example, in some areas auger or drill 1 2 TECHNIQUES OF WATER-RESOURCES INVESTIGATIONS holes may be a more effective way of obtain- Interpretation ing near-surface information than geophysi- cal surveys. In some investigations a com- Interpretation of geophysical data can be bination of drilling and geophysical meas- completely objective or highly subjective. It urements may provide the optimum cost- can range from a simple inspection of a map benefit ratio. Geophysical surveys are not or profile to a highly sophisticated operation practical in all ground-water investigations, involving skilled personnel and elaborate but this determination usually can be made supporting equipment. Some interpretations only by someone with an understanding of require little understanding of the geology, the capabilities, limitations, and costs of but the quality of most interpretations is im- geophysical surveys. proved if the interpreter has a good under- A clear definition of the geologic or hydro- standing of the geology involved. Although logic problem and objectives of an investiga- some individuals are both skilled geophysi- tion is important in determining w,hether cists and geologists, a cooperative effort be- exploration geophysics should be used and tween geologists and geophysicists is usually also in designing the geophysical survey. The the most effective approach to the interpreta- lack of a clear definition of the problem can tion of geophysical data. result in ineffective use of geophysical methods. The proper design of a geophysical survey is important not only in insuring that The Literature of the needed data will be obtained but also in controlling costs, as the expense of making Exploration Geophysics a geophysical survey is determined primarily by the detail and accuracy required. The science, technology, and art of geo- physical exploration have undergone explo- sive growth in the last two decades and with Collection and Reduction of this growth has come an increasing degree of specialization in all subdisciplines of the Geophysical Dato field. The literature indicates an increasing trend in this direction and the geologist or Some simple geophysical surveys can be engineer interested in applications of geo- made by individuals with little previous ex- physics to problems with which he is con- perience and with an investment in equip- cerned is faced with a growing array of books ment of only a few hundred dollars. Other and periodicals. With the idea that interested surveys require highly skilled personnel readers of this manual may want to pursue working with complex and expensive equip- specific subjects, a list of the more readily ment. Good equipment and technical exper- available texts and periodicals published in tise are essenti,al to a high quality survey. English follows. Some of them date back as Attempts to use obsolete or “cookbook” in- many as 30 years, and parts of these are out- terpretation methods in geophysical surveys dated. Nevertheless, much of the theory pre- often increase the total cost of the survey sented in them is still valid today. and result in an inferior product. Some geophysical data can be used direct- ly in geologic interpretations. Other geophy- Elementary Textbooks Iof a sical data require considerable processing be- General Nature fore the data can be interpreted, and the cost of data reduction is a major part of the total Dobrin, M. B., 1960, Introduction to Geo- cost of the survey. Many data processing op- physical Prospecting: Second ed., Mc- erations in use today require the use of Graw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York, electronic computers. 446 p. APPLICATION OF SURFACE GEOPHYSICS 3 Eve, A. S., and Keys, D. A., 1966, Applied rent Resistivity Prospecting : Gebruder Geophysics in the Search for Minerals : Borntrleger, Berlin, 103 p. 1 1* Fourth ed., Cambridge University Press, London, 382 p. Books Emphasizing the Seismic Griffiths, D. H., and King, R. F., 1965, Ap- Method plied Geophysics for Engineers and Geologists : Pergamon Press, London, Dix, C. H., 1952, Seismic Prospecting for 223 p. Oil : Harper, New York, 414 p. Nettleton, L. L., 1940, Geophysical Prospecti Musgrave, A. W., ed., 1967, Seismic Refrac- ing for Oil : McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., tion Prospecting: Sot. Explor. Geophyi- New York, 444 p. sists, Tulsa, 604 p. Parasnis, D. S., 1962, Principles of Applied Slotnick, M. M., 1969, Lessons in Seismic Geophysics: Methuen, London, 176 p. Computing : Sot. Explor. Geophysicists, Tulsa, 268 p. White, J. E., 1966, Seismic Wav+Radia- Advanced Textbooks of a tion, Transmission, and Attenuation : General Nature McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York, 302 p. Grant, F. S., and West, G. F., 1966, Inter- pretation Theory in Applied Geophysics : McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York, Books Emphasizing the Magnetic 681 p. Method Heiland, C. A., 1940, Geophysical Explora- tion, Reprinted 1963: Hafner, New Hansen, D. A., Heinrichs, W. E., Jr., Holmer, York, 1,013 p. R. C., MacDougall, R. E., Rogers, G. R., Jakosky, J. J., 1950, Exploration Geophysics: Sumner, J. S., and Ward, S. H.; eds., Second ed., Trija, Los Angeles, 1,195 p. 1967, Mining Geophysics, Vol. II, Land&erg, H. E., ed., Advancee in Geo- Theory, Chapter III: Sot. Explor. Geo- physics : ~01s. 1-13, Academic Press, physicists, Tulsa, 708 p. New York. Nagata, Takesi, 1961, Rock Magnetism: Rev. ed., Maruzen, Tokyo, 350 p. Books Emphasizing the Electrical Case History Compilations Methods European Association of Exploration Geo- Bhattacharya, P. K., and Patra, H. P., 1968, physicists, 1958, Geophysical Surveys in Direct Current Geoelectric Sounding- Mining, Hydrological and Engineering Principles and Interpretation : Elsevier, Projects: European Association of Ex- Amsterdam, 136 p. ploration Geophysicists, The Hague, Hansen, D. A., Heinrichs, W. E., Jr., Holmer, The Net.herlands, 270 p. R. C., MacDougall, R. E., Rogers, G. R., Lyons, P. L., ed., 1966, Geophysical Case His- Sumner, J. S., and Ward, S. H., eds., tories: Vol. 11-1956, Sot. Explor. Geo- 1967, Mining Geophysics,Vol. II, Theory, physicists, Tulsa, 676 p. Chapter II: Sot. Explor. Geophysicista, Nettleton, L. L., ed., 1949, Geophysical Case Tulsa, 708 p. Histories: Vol. 1-1948, Sot. Explor. Keller, G. V., and Frischknecht, F. C., 1966, Geophysicists, Tulsa, 671 p. Electrical Methods in Geophysical Woollard, G. P., and Hanson, G. F., 1954, Prospecting : Pergamon Press, Oxford, Geophysical Methods Applied to Geologic 517 p. Problems in Wisconsin: Univ. Wiscon- Kunetz, Geza, 1966, Principles of Direct Cur- sin, Madison, 266 p. e

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