Apartheid's Contras: An Inquiry into the Roots of War in Angola and Mozambique

291 Pages·2007·1.64 MB·English

Apartheid's Contras: An Inquiry into the Roots of
War in Angola and Mozambique
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Apartheid's Contras: An Inquiry into the Roots of War in Angola and
Mozambique
Author/Creator Minter, William
Publisher Zed Books Ltd, Witwatersrand University Press
Date 1994-00-00
Resource type Books
Language English
Subject
Coverage (spatial) Angola, Mozambique, South Africa, Southern Africa (region)
Coverage (temporal) 1975 - 1993
Rights By kind permission of William Minter.
Description This book explores the wars in Angola and Mozambique
after independence. It analyzes the interconnected roles of
social structure; external intervention; the particular patterns
of military recruitment, conditioning, logistics and strategy
that characterize Unita and Renamo; and the vulnerability
and mistakes of the new Angolan and Mozambican states.
Format extent 323 page(s)
(length/size)
http://www.aluka.org/action/showMetadata?doi=10.5555/AL.SFF.DOCUMENT.crp20005
http://www.aluka.org
W
W
LULI
A
M
MINTER
APARTHEID'S
CONTRAS
ANINQUIRY INTO THEROOTSOFWAR
INANGOLAANDMOZAMBIQUE
Abouttheauthor
William MinterisaleadingUSspecialistonthesouthernAfricanregion,andon
Angola and Mozambiqueinparticular.
Minter's extensiveexperienceofsouthernAfricaincludesteachingatthe
secondaryschooloftheMozambiqueLiberationFrontinTanzaniaand
Mozambiqueinthei96osand197os andworkwiththeanti-apartheidmovement
intheUnitedStates.HeholdsaPh.D.fromtheUniversityof Wisconsin
(Madison),withaconcentrationinpoliticalsociologyandAfricanstudies.
Heiscurrentlythe AssociateDirectorforEducationatthe WashingtonOfficeon
Africa andavisitingscholarattheSchoolof InternationalService,theAmerican
University.
'Minter'sbookcouldnotbemoretimely. WiththeANC victoryin SouthAfrica,
theworldis readytoforgetsouthernAfrica,and forgivetheneardestructionof
Angola and Mozambiqueindefenceofapartheid SouthAfrica. Minterremindsus
ofhowthewarstherewerenourishedandlargelyincidedtopreventhuman
liberation.Itis asoberingtale withlessons fortheimmediatefuture.'Immanuel
Wallerstein
'Minterhandlestheextremelyfragmentaryandcontroversialmaterialonthewars
insouthernAfricainaremarkablylucid,dispassionate yetcommittedway. His
booktakesaccountofthemanydifferentviewsandattempts toweighthe
evidencesystematicallyandjudiciously.Itshouldbereadbyallthosewithan
interestincontemporarysouthernAfrica,orwhateverpersuasion.'
ShulaMarks,Professorofthe HistoryofSouthern Africa, SchoolofOrientaland
African Studies
'Byfarthemostcomprehensiveanalysisofracist SouthAfrica'sdestabilization
campaignsinAngolaand Mozambique.Arenownedspecialistontheregion,
William Minterdrawnonanextraordinaryarrayofsourcestoofferboth experts
andgeneralreaders anoutstandingvolume.'
Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja,ProfessorofAfricanStudies,HowardUniversity
'Allthoseresponsiblefor the'contra'subversionsinAngolaand Mozambiquewill
becursedbyhistoryforenormousandterriblecrimes,whichwilllongweigh
heavilyonthewholeofsouthernAfrica. WilliamMinter gives us the factualand
balanced record;itis,forallofus,anindispensablecontribution.'BasilDavidson
Books byWilliamMinter
Portuguese Africaandthe West(Harmondsworth: Penguin,1972and
NewYork:MonthlyReviewPress,1973).
ImperialNetworkandExternalDependency:The CaseofAngola(Beverly
Hills:SageProfessional Papersin InternationalStudies, 1972).ImperialBrain
Trust:TheCouncilon ForeignRelationsandUnitedStates
Foreign Policy(with LaurenceShoup)(NewYork:MonthlyReviewPress,1977).
KingSolomon's MinesRevisited:Western InterestsandtheBurdened History
ofSouthern Africa(New York:BasicBooks,1986).
OperationTimber:Pages fromtheSavimbiDossier(Trenton,NJ:Africa
World Press,1988).
Reviews
KingSolomon's MinesRevisited(NewYork:BasicBooks,1986)
'Aninvaluablework, elegantlyorganisedandwritten ...Ihavenameditoneofmy
choicesfor"BooksoftheYear"'-NadineGordimer
'Themostchallengingof recentbooks on Southern Africa'ProfessorLeonard
Thompson,TheNewYorkReviewofBooks
'Wellresearchedandsoberlyreflective,typicalofMinter'sscholarlybackground
...Recommendedforalluniversitylibraries'LibraryJournal
'Anoriginal,highlyreadablestudy...averyimportantnewbookthatwarrants
widereadership'-Choice
'Indispensable...probablythebesthistoricaloverviewyetpublished'-Victoria
Brittain,Guardian
'CompulsoryreadingforanyoneseriouslyinterestedinSouthAfrica'-Donald
Woods,Third WorldQjuarterly
'Amustforscholarsand analystsofSouthAfricaandtheU.S.stancetowards that
country'-ForeignAffairs
Arichmineofessentialhistoricalinformation,shrewdpoliticalinsights and
comments'-TheBlackScholar
'Apowerful,wide-rangingand ambitiousbook'-Professor ShulaMarks,Southern
AfricanReviewofBooks
'Abig,importantbook,deservingoftheattentionithasalreadyreceived.
Authoritativeinacademicterms,itisreadilyaccessibletoageneralreadership' -
InternationalJournalofAfrican HistoricalStudies
'Asubstantialachievementofscholarlysynthesis'-DrIanHenderson,Journalof
SouthernAfricanStudies
Apartheid'sContras
An InquiryintotheRootsof War
inAngolaand Mozambique
WILLIAM
MINTER
WitwatersrandUniversityPress
JOHANNESBURG
0
ZedBooks
LONDON&NEWJERSEY
Wi?
Apartheid'sContraswasfirstpublishedbyZedBooks Ltd,
7CynthiaStreet,London NI9JF,UKand165 FirstAvenue,AtlanticHighlands,
NewJersey07716,USA, andinthe
RepublicofSouthAfricabyWitwatersrandUniversityPress,iJan Smuts
Avenue,Johannesburg2001,SouthAfrica,in1994.
Copyright© WilliamMinter,1994.
CoverdesignedbyAndrewCorbett.
CoverphotographbyCarlosGuarita/Reportage.
Maps reproducedfromAfricaRecoverybykindpermissionofUnited Nations,
AfricaRecovery.
Setin MonotypeBaskervillebyEwan Smith, LondonE8.
PrintedandboundintheUnitedKingdombyBiddles Ltd,Guildford and King's
Lynn.
Therightof WilliamMintertobeidentifiedas theauthorofthisworkhasbeen
assertedbyhim
accordingtotheCopyright,Designsand PatentsAct,1988.
Allrightsreserved.
Acatalogue recordforthis bookisavailablefromtheBritish Library.
usCipdataisavailablefromtheLibraryofCongress.
ISBN1856492656Cased ISBN1856492664 Limp In SouthAfrica
ISBN1868142779 Limp
Contents
Acknowledgements viii
ListofAbbreviations ix
Maps:Angola x
Mozambique xi
SouthernAfrica xii
Introduction I
FromColonialRuleto Liberation II
Tothehourofvictory 13
Institutionalizinghope 21
Cross-borderoperations, 1976-79 27
Militaryoutlookontheeveofthei98os 34
2 TotalWaranditsAftermath,1980-93 37
SouthAfrica'stotalstrategy 37
Unleashingthedogs ofwar,1980-82 39
Talk,talk,fight,fight, I983-84 42
Stokingtheflamesofviolence,1985-87 45
Windingdownthe conventionalwar: warandnegotiations,
1988-89 49
Promises ofpeace:war, negotiationsandwar,1990-93 52
3 Explanations-Theories, Facts andArguments 56
Whyexplanations matter 57
State,nation,ethnicityandraceandtheboundaries
of'civilwar' 61
State,revolutionandcounter-revolution 65
Theoryandpracticeofunconventionalwarfare 70
Logicsofcomparisonandhistoricalexplanation 74
Piecingtogethertheevidence 77
4 Nationalism,Ethnicityand Decolonization 81
Historicalrootsofethno-regionaldistinctions 82
Inventingthenation 86
Organizationandhegemonyinthenationalistmovement 89Decolonization
scenarios 93
Theancien rigimeandotherlosers 99
Ethnicityandregionalisminthepost-colonial wars 102
5 RevolutionandCounter-RevolutioninRegionalPerspective io8
Initialresponsestoinsecurity 109
Thecross-borderoption 112
Theregionalline-up "17
Institutionalinstruments oftotalstrategy 120
Proxies,clientsorallies? 126
Continuityand changeonthewestern front:
Angola andNamibia 128
Continuityand changeontheeastern front:Mozambique 134 Summingupthe
SouthAfricanintervention 139
6 TheCold WarConnection:Crusaders andConflict
Managers 142
Cold Warandnationalliberation 143
Thecurious courseofconstructiveengagement 147
TheUnitalobby:athomeinReagan's Washington 151
Renamo'sAmerican connection 155
Geopolitics,diplomacyandtheReagandoctrineinAngola 159 Superpower
defaultandterroristblackmailinMozambique 165
7 HowContra Warfare Works:theMilitaryComponent 172
RecruitmentandcontrolinMozambique 174
In Angola 176
Controlandassimilation '79
Thelogistics of militaryoperations 185
Strategyandorganization 191
Theoperationalroleof externalsponsors 197
8 HowContra Warfare Works:TheMilitary/Civilian
Relationship 204
Mozambique:force,persuasionandindirectrule 205
Mozambique:regionalvariations 211
Angola: ethnicloyalty,politicalorganizationand violent
dictatorship 217
Unita,Renamo andpoliticalpluralism 225
9 TheStateUnder Siege:Militaryand Political Vulnerabilities 231
Thelegacyofthecolonialstate 232
Theintractabledilemmas ofcounterinsurgency 235
State,partyandparticipation 241
State,bureaucracyand 'administrativemeasures' 247
Stateand civilsociety 250
ioTheStateUnderSiege:Economic Failuresand Social
Consequences 258
Angola's enclaveeconomy 259
Mozambique's serviceeconomy 264
Mozambique's agrarian economy 267
Structuraladjustments andaiddependence 272
Socialdisintegrationand thestruggleforsurvival 276
iiConcludingReflections 282
SouthernAfrica's wars andhistoricalresponsibility 282Unconventionalwarfare
fromCold Wartonewworlddisorder287
Notes 290
Index
303
Acknowledgements
This isnotsomuchabookIchosetowriteas abook Ifelthadtobewritten.Iam
mostgratefultothosemanyindividualswhoencouraged me,reaffirmedthe
project'simportance, and sharedtheirhospitalityandinsights.Ihopethiswork
contributes toourcommonconcernthatsimplisticrewritingofhistoryshouldnot
exoneratethosewhobearprincipalresponsibilityformassivehumansuffering.
Thenames aretoo manytocite,butafewwhosetimelyencouragementwas
particularlyimportant mustbementioned:Sven Hamrell,StenRylander, and
PrexyNesbitt.
Iam gratefulforfinancialsupporttoThe Ford Foundation,SIDAin Swedenand
NOVIB intheNetherlands.
Manyothersalsocontributedindirectlytothisbook.Idrewinspirationfromthe
manycommittedindividuals,Angolans,Mozambicansandforeigners,whohave
continuedworkingtoservethepeople as besttheycould,despitedisillusionment
anddiscouragement.Iamindebtedtothesmall groupofwriters whohavecoped
withthemanydifficultiesindoingseriousresearchonAngolaand Mozambique,
fromBasilDavidson's pioneeringworkto recentinvestigationsbyMozambican
andAngolanresearchers andjournalists.MostwillfindcluesthatIhave
incorporatedtheirinsights,howeverinadequately, andwill,Ihope,forgivemefor
onlythemostcursoryofmentionsinfootnotes.
Iparticularlywishtothankthosewho commentedonthemanuscriptatthealmost
finalstage:MerleBowen,Ant6nioMatonse,RobertMolteno,Jeanne Penvenne,
OttoRoesch,KathySheldon,DavidSogge,CatherineSunshine, and Ken Wilson.
NewsofOtto'sdeathinanautomobileaccidentin Mozambiquecamejustas I
wascompletingtheseacknowledgements;his committedandcarefulscholarship
willbesorelymissed.
Ithankmycolleagues atthe Washington OfficeonAfrica forunderstandingmy
needtotaketimeforthebook. Inbearingwith myfrustrationswhilewritingit,
Cathymanagedadmirablytokeephersenseofhumourand Cynthiaher4-year-
oldenergyand enthusiasmunchecked.
William Minter,June1994
ListofAbbreviations
African NationalCongress CentralIntelligenceOrganization(Rhodesia)Congress
ofSouthAfricanTrade Unions Frontforthe LiberationoftheEnclaveofCabinda
CongoNationalLiberation FrontNational FrontfortheLiberationof Angola
MozambiqueLiberationFront MozambicanNationalResistancePopular
MovementfortheLiberationofAngolaOrganizationofAfrican UnityAfrican
PartyfortheIndependenceofGuinea-Bissauand CapeVerde
MozambicanNationalResistance SouthAfrican DevelopmentCoordination
ConferenceSouthAfricanDefence ForceStateSecurityCouncil(SouthAfrica)
South WestAfrican People's OrganizationSouth WestAfricaTerritorial Force
UnitedDemocraticFrontMozambiqueNationalUnionNationalUnionforthe
TotalIndependenceofAngolaUnionofPeoples ofAngolaZimbabweanAfrican
NationalUnionZimbabweanAfrican People'sUnion
ANC CIO
COSATU FLEC FLNC FNLA Frelimo MNR MPLAOAUPAIGC
RenamoSADCC SADFSSC SWAPOSWATFUDFUNAMOUnitaUPA
ZANUZAPU
14
WbanzaCongo0ZAIRE
UiGE
irmo
LUNDA
NORTE
ocazomtoLumtela
cuitoo
CuanavaleCUANDOol,,in,,CUBANGO
.0ndjiva
OJamba
ZIMBABWE
MOZAMBIQUE
Internationalboundary
Provincialboundary
Railroad
0 Nationalcapital() Provincialcapital
0 Town+ Airport
INDIANOCEAN
o uo100150 Mirk
0 50 too so0w
CABO
DELGADO
NAMPULA
ne 11C%.
Luanda'
Lobi
ATLANTIC SenguelaOCEAN I
WalvisBay
SOUTHERN
AFRICA
0 500 1000 1500km
I I I,,
I I I
0 500 1000mi
Theboundaries andnamesshownonthismapdo notimplyofficialendorsement
oracceptancebytheUnitedNations.
INDIANOCEAN
larOsSalaam
lacala
toine
.AND
CapeTo%
Introduction
Twohiddenwars ravagedAngolaand Mozambiqueinthei98os,withatollin
humansufferingthateasilyrivalledifnotsurpassedthemorepublicized conflicts
inNicaraguaandAfghanistan.ThesouthernAfricanwars,however,rarely
appearedontelevisionscreensaroundtheworld.SouthAfricacaptured media
attentionmid-decade,butfewinternationalobservers madethecriticalconnection
betweenthe apartheidregime'sviolenceathomeandits roleinfomentingwarin
neighbouringcountries. Onoccasion,massacres orfaminesin Mozambiqueor
Angola wonbrief mentioninthenews.Butforthemostpart,thekillingwenton
unremarked.
Theaftermathin1992-93,asAngolawasplungedintowaragainafterwidely
applauded multi-partyelections,wasevenmorehorrific.Overioo,ooopeople
werekilledwithina year,rates farexceedingthewars intheformerYugoslavia,
asthelosingpartywent ontheattack,besiegingcitiesandblockingreliefsupplies
whiletheworldpress andtheinternationalcommunitypaidno morethantoken
attention.Thepost-electioncatastrophe, anominous precedentforotherAfrican
countries planningfor elections,wouldhavebeen impossiblewithoutthe
systematicbuild-upofinsurgentforces overtheprevious decade.
Muchofthedetailedhistoryofthesewars mayneverberecovered.Nevertheless,
disentanglingthemainthreads iscriticaltounderstandingthelegacyofthe198os
atseverallevels.Tostart with,flawedinterpretations ofthepastarelikelyto
contributetofuturefailurestoestablishstablebasesforpeaceandnational
reconstruction.Secondly,Angolans and Mozambicansmustinterpretthese
tragedies tocometotermswithfundamentalthemes oftheirnationalhistories.In
addition,understandingthedynamics-and countingupthecosts-ofapartheid's
struggleto maintainitselfis impossiblewithoutincludingAngolaand
Mozambique. Finally,thesetwoconflictsareamongtheprimeexamples of
'freedom-fighter'insurgencies celebratedbythe internationalrightwinginthelast
decadeoftheCold War.
Angola and Mozambiquefeatureacomplex interplayofinternal,
APARTHEID'SCONTRAS
regionaland globalfactorsthatrefuseto fitsimplemodelsofwars between
nation-statesorofpurelyinternalcivilwars. Stateandnonstateactorsbothplayed
activeroles.Inthepost-Cold Warera,withnationalboundaries beingreadjusted
andabewilderingprofusionofconflicts,sortingoutsuchmulti-levelinteractions
offactorsislikelytobecomeeven moreimportant.
Asacase-study,thisbookfocusesprimarilyontheparticularities ofthetwo
cases.Butas acomparativestudy,italsodraws outpointsofwiderrelevance,
bothfortheparallel'Reagan-doctrine'anti-MarxistinsurgenciesofthelateCold
Warand, moregenerally,forthekindofwarfaremostrecentlylabelled 'low-
intensityconflict'.
Theterm 'low-intensityconflict'distinguishes guerrillawars andother
unconventionalwarfarefrom'medium- andhigh-intensity'conventionalwarson
thescaleculminatingin nuclearconfrontation.Butgaugedinterms ofhuman
suffering, 'low-intensity'isamonstrous misnomerforwarssuchasthosein
Angola and Mozambique. Largescalebattlefieldencounters,such as thosein
south-easternAngolainthemid-i98os,wereindeedexceptional.Butthe
cumulativetollofviolence year-inand year-out, plus thefactthatthevictims
wereoverwhelminglycivilians,imposedatraumaonthesesocieties comparable
withthatoftheSecond World War onEurope.'
Thewarin Mozambiquebegansoonafterthecountryachievedindependencein
1975undertheleadershipoftheMozambiqueLiberation Front,knownbyits
Portuguese acronym Frelimo. Frelimo grantedrefugetoZimbabwean guerrillas
fightingformajorityrule inRhodesia.TheRhodesianarmysupplemented raids
onMozambiqueagainst Zimbabwean guerrillaswithsponsorshipofthe
MozambicanNationalResistance, known atfirstas MNR andlater asRenamo.
WhenZimbabweachievedindependencein198o, SouthAfricatookover
sponsorshipofRenamo anddramaticallyaugmenteditsmilitarycapacity. Despite
a1984non-aggressionpactbetween MozambiqueandSouthAfrica,Renamo