AP Environmental Science Comprehensive Study Guide

605 Pages·2013·13.92 MB·English

AP Environmental
Science
Comprehensive
Study Guide
Made By Sai Surej
NOT A SUBSTITUTE FOR READING THE
TEXTBOOK
(Some Info May Be Repetitive)
STUDENTS
2
Table of Contents
 APES EXAM TOPIC OUTLINE ********************************************************** 5
 STANDARD GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE*************************************************** 7
 QUICK APES NOTES
 Earth Science ***********************************************************************9
 Atmosphere *********************************************************************** 10
 Water **************************************************************************** 10
 Soil ******************************************************************************11
 Ecosystems / Biomes ****************************************************************12
 Energy Flow ***********************************************************************13
 Ecosystem diversity *****************************************************************13
 Populations ************************************************************************14
 Agriculture ************************************************************************15
 Forestry ************************************************************************** 15
 Rangelands ************************************************************************15
 Other Land Use ******************************************************************** 15
 Mining ***************************************************************************16
 Fishing ***************************************************************************16
 Global Economics ****************************************************************** 16
 Types of Pollution ****************************************************************** 17
 Energy Concepts ******************************************************************* 18
 Global Change *********************************************************************20
 LONGER APES NOTES
 Agriculture and Food ****************************************************************21
 Air ******************************************************************************26
 Air Pollution ********************************************************************** 30
 Biodiversity ***********************************************************************34
 Biological Communities ************************************************************* 37
 Biomes ***************************************************************************41
 Conventional Energy ****************************************************************49
 Economics ************************************************************************ 53
 Environmental Geology **************************************************************56
 Environmental Health and Toxicology ************************************************** 60
 Environmental Philosophies ********************************************************** 63
 Human Population ******************************************************************67
 Laws *****************************************************************************69
 Matter ****************************************************************************83
 Pests *****************************************************************************86
 Population ************************************************************************ 89
 Solid, Toxic, and Hazardous Waste *****************************************************91
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 Sustainable Cities and Personal Action **************************************************94
 Sustainable Energy ******************************************************************99
 Water *************************************************************************** 104
 Water Pollution ******************************************************************* 107
 HOW IT HAPPENS ******************************************************************112
 TOPIC SUMMARIES
 Science, Systems, Matter, and Energy **************************************************115
 Ecosystems: What Are They and How Do They Work *************************************116
 Evolution and Biodiversity ********************************************************** 117
 Biodiversity, Species Interactions, and Population Control ********************************* 118
 The Human Population and Its Impact ************************************************* 119
 Climate and Terrestrial Biodiversity *************************************************** 120
 Aquatic Biodiversity *************************************************************** 121
 Sustaining Biodiversity: The Species Approach ****************************************** 122
 Sustaining Terrestrial Biodiversity: The Ecosystem Approach *******************************123
 Sustaining Aquatic Biodiversity ****************************************************** 125
 Food, Soil, and Pest Management *****************************************************126
 Water ***************************************************************************128
 Geology and Nonrenewable Mineral Resources ******************************************129
 Nonrenewable Energy **************************************************************130
 Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy ********************************************** 131
 Environmental Hazards and Human Health ********************************************* 132
 Air Pollution ********************************************************************* 133
 Climate Change and Ozone Depletion **************************************************134
 Water Pollution ******************************************************************* 135
 Solid and Hazardous Waste **********************************************************136
 Sustainable Cities ******************************************************************137
 Economics, Environment, and Sustainability ******************************************** 138
 Politics, Environment, and Sustainability *********************************************** 139
 Environmental Worldviews, Ethics, and Sustainability*************************************140
 IN-DEPTH TOPIC NOTES
 Living Sustainably *****************************************************************141
 Critical Thinking ******************************************************************151
 Matter and Energy *****************************************************************156
 Ecosystems ***********************************************************************163
 Nutrient Cycles and Soil ************************************************************ 168
 Evolution and Biodiversity ********************************************************** 175
 Climate and Biomes ****************************************************************184
 Aquatic Ecology *******************************************************************191
 Species Interactions ****************************************************************203
 Population Dynamics ***************************************************************212
 Human Population *****************************************************************220
 Food Resources *******************************************************************230
 Water****************************************************************************236
 Minerals and Soil Resources *********************************************************243
 Nonrenewable Energy **************************************************************258
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 Renewable Energy *****************************************************************272
 Toxicology ***********************************************************************280
 Air Pollution ********************************************************************* 290
 Global Warming ****************************************************************** 301
 Water Pollution ******************************************************************* 317
 Pesticides ************************************************************************ 328
 Solid and Hazardous Waste **********************************************************334
 Sustaining Ecosystems - Land Use **************************************************** 346
 Sustaining Ecosystems - Forests ******************************************************356
 Sustaining Wild Species ************************************************************ 367
 Sustainable Cities - Urban Land Management ******************************************* 378
 Economics and Environment *********************************************************390
 Politics and Environment ************************************************************402
 Environmental Worldviews **********************************************************413
 AIR POLLUTANTS*******************************************************************419
 OTHER IMPORTANT INFO
 Endangered Species ****************************************************************420
 Not Endangered Species ************************************************************ 420
 Biomes ************************************************************************* 421
 Places to Know ******************************************************************* 422
 Laws and Treaties ***************************************************************** 422
 People to Know ******************************************************************* 423
 Top 10's ************************************************************************* 424
 Math Review ********************************************************************* 427
 Chemistry Review ***************************************************************** 429
 REVIEW PPT *********************************************************************** 431
 MATH WITHOUT CALCULATORS **************************************************** 544
 GLOSSARY 1 ***********************************************************************566
 GLOSSARY 2 ***********************************************************************586
 GLOSSARY 3 ***********************************************************************590
 EXTERNAL LINKS (Extremely Useful) **************************************************595
 VISUALS ************************************************************************** 601
 FINAL THOUGHTS ******************************************************************602
 EXAM TIPS ************************************************************************ 603
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APES EXAM TOPIC OUTLINE

I. Earth Systems and Resources (10-15%)
A. Earth Science Concepts (Geologic time scale; plate tectonics, earthquakes, volcanism; seasons;
solar intensity and latitude)
B. The Atmosphere (Composition; structure; weather and climate; atmospheric circulation and
the Coriolis Effect; atmosphere-ocean interactions; ENSO)
C. Global Water Resources and Use (Freshwater/saltwater; ocean circulation; agricultural,
industrial, and domestic use; surface and groundwater issues; global problems; conservation)
D. Soil and Soil Dynamics (Rock cycle; formation; composition; physical and chemical
properties; main soil types; erosion and other soil problems; soil conservation)

II. The Living World (10-15%)
A. Ecosystem Structure (Biological populations and communities; ecological niches; interactions
among species; keystone species; species diversity and edge effects; major terrestrial and aquatic
biomes)
B. Energy Flow (Photosynthesis and cellular respiration; food webs and trophic levels; ecological
pyramids)
C. Ecosystem Diversity (Biodiversity; natural selection; evolution; ecosystem services)
D. Natural Ecosystem Change (Climate shifts; species movement; ecological succession)
E. Natural Biogeochemical Cycles (Carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, water, conservation of
matter)

III. Population (10-15%)
A. Population Biology Concepts (Population ecology; carrying capacity; reproductive strategies;
survivorship)
B. Human Population
1. Human population dynamics (Historical population sizes; distribution; fertility rates;
growth rates and doubling times; demographic transition; age-structure diagrams)
2. Population size (Strategies for sustainability; case studies; national policies)
3. Impacts of population growth (Hunger; disease; economic effects; resource use; habitat
destruction)

IV. Land and Water Use (10-15%)
A. Agriculture
1. Feeding a growing population (Human nutritional requirements; types of agriculture;
Green Revolution; genetic engineering and crop production; deforestation; irrigation;
sustainable agriculture)
2. Controlling pests (Types of pesticides; costs and benefits of pesticide use; integrated
pest management; relevant laws)
B. Forestry (Tree plantations; old growth forests; forest fires; forest management; national
forests)
C. Rangelands (Overgrazing; deforestation; desertification; rangeland management; federal rangelands)
D. Other Land Use
1. Urban land development (Planned development; suburban sprawl; urbanization)
2. Transportation infrastructure (Federal highway system; canals and channels; roadless
areas; ecosystem impacts)
3. Public and federal lands (Management; wilderness areas; national parks; wildlife
refuges; forests; wetlands)
4. Land conservation options (Preservation; remediation; mitigation; restoration)
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5.Sustainable land-use strategies
E. Mining (Mineral formation; extraction; global reserves; relevant laws and treaties)
F. Fishing (Fishing techniques; overfishing; aquaculture; relevant laws and treaties)
G. Global Economics (Globalization; World Bank; Tragedy of the Commons; relevant laws and
treaties)
V. Energy Resources and Consumption (10-15%)
A. Energy Concepts (Energy forms; power; units; conversions; Laws of Thermodynamics)
B. Energy Consumption
1.History (Industrial Revolution; exponential growth; energy crisis)
2.Present global energy use
3.Future energy needs
C. Fossil Fuel Resources and Use
(Formation of coal, oil, and natural gas; extraction/purification methods; world reserves and
global demand; synfuels; environmental advantages/disadvantages of sources)
D. Nuclear Energy (Nuclear fission process; nuclear fuel; electricity production; nuclear reactor
types; environmental advantages/disadvantages; safety issues; radiation and human health;
radioactive wastes; nuclear fusion)
E. Hydroelectric Power (Dams; flood control; salmon; silting; other impacts)
F. Energy Conservation (Energy efficiency; CAFE standards; hybrid electric vehicles; mass transit)
G. Renewable Energy (Solar energy; solar electricity; hydrogen fuel cells; biomass; wind energy;
small-scale hydroelectric; ocean waves and tidal energy; geothermal; environmental
advantages/disadvantages)
VI.Pollution (25-30%)
A. Pollution Types
1.Air pollution (Sources-primary and secondary; major air pollutants; measurement
units; smog; acid deposition-causes and effects; heat islands and temperature inversions;
indoor air pollution; remediation and reduction strategies; Clean Air Act and other relevant laws)
2.Noise pollution (Sources; effects; control measures)
3.Water pollution (Types; sources, causes, and effects; cultural eutrophication;
groundwater pollution; maintaining water quality; water purification; sewage
treatment/septic systems; Clean Water Act and other relevant laws)
4.Solid waste (Types; disposal; reduction)
B. Impacts on the Environment and Human Health
1.Hazards to human health (Environmental risk analysis; acute and chronic effects; dose
response relationships; air pollutants; smoking and other risks)
2.Hazardous chemicals in the environment (Types of hazardous waste;
treatment/disposal of hazardous waste; cleanup of contaminated sites; biomagnification; relevant laws)
C. Economic Impacts (Cost-benefit analysis; externalities; marginal costs; sustainability)
VII.Global Change (10-15%)
A. Stratospheric Ozone (Formation of stratospheric ozone; ultraviolet radiation; causes of ozone
depletion; effects of ozone depletion; strategies for reducing ozone depletion; relevant laws and treaties)
B. Global Warming (Greenhouse gases and the greenhouse effect; impacts and consequences of
global warming; reducing climate change; relevant laws and treaties)
C. Loss of Biodiversity
1.Habitat loss; overuse; pollution; introduced species; endangered and extinct species
2.Maintenance through conservation
3.Relevant laws and treaties
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STANDARD GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE
AGE IMPORTANT
EON ERA PERIOD EPOCH
(M.y.) EVENTS
0.01 - Human civilization
Holocene
present develops.
Quaternary Continental
1.6 - glaciation in the
Pleistocene
0.01 northern
hemisphere
5.3 - Humans appear for
Pliocene
1.6 the first time.
23.7 - Antarctic Ice Sheet
CENOZOIC Miocene
5.3 develops.
Himalaya
36.6 -
Oligocene Mountains begin to
Tertiary 23.7
form.
57.8 - The Alps form in
Eocene
36.6 Europe.
Mammals become
66.4 -
PHANEROZOIC Paleocene dominant land
57.8
animals
Dinosaurs become
144 - extinct; Rocky
Cretaceous
66.4 Mountains begin
forming.
Atlantic Ocean
208 - begins to form
MESOZOIC Jurassic
144 between N.
America & Africa.
1st dinosaurs; North
245 - America begins to
Triassic
208 separate from
Africa.
All land masses
286 - joined to form a
PALEOZOIC Permian
245 single
supercontinent
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called Pangaea.
Appalachian
Mountains &
320 - Ouachita Mountains
Pennsylvanian
286 formed by
continental collision
with Africa.
Extensive deposits
360 -
Mississippian of coal developed
320
worldwide.
1st fossils of
408- amphibians
Devonian
360 (animals which
could live on land).
438 - 1st fossils of land
Silurian
408 plants.
1st fossil fish;
505 - evidence of
Ordovician
438 continental
glaciation in Africa.
545 - Abundant fossils of
Cambrian
505 marine organisms.
1st evidence of
2500 - oxygen in
PROTEROZOIC
545 atmosphere = 2.0
billion years ago.
Earliest evidence of
PRECAMBRIAN
life = 3.8 billion
4500 - years ago.
ARCHEAN
2500
Earth forms = 4.5
billion years ago.
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QUICK APES NOTES
Earth Science
- Earth made of core (solid inner, molten outer, iron), mantle (mostly solid rock, asthenosphere
flowing), lithosphere (contains crust)
- Lithosphere broken into tectonic plates, largest is Pacific Plate
Plate Boundaries- where 2 plates touch
- Convergent boundary- pushed toward each other
- Divergent boundary- moving away from each other
- Transform fault boundary- slide from side to side
Volcanoes
- Volcano- mountains formed by magma from Earth's interior
- Active volcanoes- currently erupting or have erupted in recorded history
- Dormant volcanoes- never known to erupt
- Extinct volcanoes- never erupt again
- Rift volcanoes- plates move away from each other
- Subduction volcanoes- plates collide and slide over each other
- Hot spot volcanoes- found at areas where magma rises to surface, Hawaiian islands
Earthquakes
From vibrations of plate movements deep in Earth
- Focus- location where earthquake begins inside Earth
- Epicenter- spot on surface of earth directly above focus
- Seismograph- measures size or magnitude
Rock Cycle
- Sedimentary- sediments build up and compress, limestone
- Metamorphic- pressure and heat applied to rock inside Earth's mantle, slate
- Igneous- rock melts and resolidifies, magma comes to surface, emerges as lava, cools to make
rock, basalt
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Atmosphere
Layer of gases covering Earth = troposphere (weather, clouds), tropopause (temp increases),
stratosphere (greenhouse effect from ozone), mesosphere (meteors burn up), thermosphere (aka
ionosphere, absorbs solar wind from Sun)
Climate
- Weather- day to day temperature, pressure, sunlight, wind speed, humidity
- Climate- constant patterns of an area
- Tilt on Earth's axis causes seasons
- Convection currents- vertical currents that rise from warm gases expanding and becoming less
dense
- Dew point- temperature water vapor condenses into liquid
- Precipitation- fallen condensation (frozen or liquid)
Weather
- Monsoon- hot air rises from hot land, creates low-pressure system, rising air cools and moisture
falls, MASSIVE RAINFALL
- Rain shadow effect- air from body of water moves inland and runs into mountain, rises and on
other side, no moisture left
- Hurricane- intense tropical storms (typhoon or cyclone in Pacific Ocean)
Water
- Watershed- where water from a particular stream collects and drains into
- Delta- where rivers meet ocean, made of deposited sediments
- Estuary- freshwater and saltwater mix, rich with species
- Wetlands- marshes, swamps, bogs, prairie potholes, flood plains, ecologically diverse
- Groundwater- water below ground, can be from wells or aquifers (layers of Earth or gravel with
water)
Freshwater Layers
- Littoral- shallow water at shoreline
- Limnetic- open water, sunlight can penetrate
- Profundal- no sunlight (aphotic)
- Benthic zone- low temp and low oxygen
Ocean Layers
- Coastal zone- between shore and end of continental shelf
- Euphotic zone- upper layers of water
- Bathyal- no photosynthesis, middle region
- Abyssal zone- deep ocean, very cold, little dissolved oxygen, high nutrients
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