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Antioxidants in Bio. and Med. - Essens., Advances, Clin. Applns. - Y. Li (Nova, 2011) WW PDF

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ANTIOXIDANTS IN BIOLOGY AND MEDICINE: ESSENTIALS, ADVANCES, AND CLINICAL APPLICATIONS No part of this digital document may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means. The publisher has taken reasonable care in the preparation of this digital document, but makes no expressed or implied warranty of any kind and assumes no responsibility for any errors or omissions. No liability is assumed for incidental or consequential damages in connection with or arising out of information contained herein. This digital document is sold with the clear understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering legal, medical or any other professional services. ANTIOXIDANTS IN BIOLOGY AND MEDICINE: ESSENTIALS, ADVANCES, AND CLINICAL APPLICATIONS YUNBO LI Nova Science Publishers, Inc. New York Copyright © 2011 by Nova Science Publishers, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means: electronic, electrostatic, magnetic, tape, mechanical pho- tocopying, recording or otherwise without the written permission of the Publisher. For permission to use material from this book please contact us: Telephone 631-231-7269; Fax 631-231-8175 Web Site: http://www.novapublishers.com NOTICE TO THE READER The Publisher has taken reasonable care in the preparation of this book, but makes no expressed or implied warranty of any kind and assumes no responsibility for any errors or omissions. No liabili- ty is assumed for incidental or consequential damages in connection with or arising out of infor- mation contained in this book. The Publisher shall not be liable for any special, consequential, or exemplary damages resulting, in whole or in part, from the readers’ use of, or reliance upon, this material. Any parts of this book based on government reports are so indicated and copyright is claimed for those parts to the extent applicable to compilations of such works. Independent verification should be sought for any data, advice or recommendations contained in this book. In addition, no responsibility is assumed by the publisher for any injury and/or damage to persons or property arising from any methods, products, instructions, ideas or otherwise con- tained in this publication. This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information with regard to the subject matter covered herein. It is sold with the clear understanding that the Publisher is not en- gaged in rendering legal or any other professional services. If legal or any other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent person should be sought. FROM A DECLARATION OF PARTICIPANTS JOINTLY ADOPTED BY A COMMITTEE OF THE AMERICAN BAR ASSOCIATION AND A COMMITTEE OF PUBLISHERS. Additional color graphics may be available in the e-book version of this book. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Antioxidants in biology and medicine: essentials, advances, and clinical applications / author, Yunbo Li. p. ; cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-61209-466-3 (eBook) 1. Antioxidants. 2. Active oxygen. I. Li, Yunbo. [DNLM: 1. Antioxidants. QV 325] QP535.O1A585 2010 616.07'1--dc22 2010041342 Published by Nova Science Publishers, Inc. † New York Contents Preface vii SECTION I INTRODUCTION TO OXIDATIVE STRESS AND ANTIOXIDANTS 1 Chapter 1 Introduction to Oxidative Stress 3 Chapter 2 Introduction to Antioxidants 21 SECTION II ANTIOXIDANTS SYNTHESIZED BY CELLS 31 Chapter 3 Superoxide Dismutase 33 Chapter 4 Catalase 47 Chapter 5 Glutathione and its Synthesizing Enzymes 59 Chapter 6 Glutathione Peroxidase 73 Chapter 7 Glutathione Reductase 85 Chapter 8 Glutathione S-Transferase 91 Chapter 9 Glutaredoxin 103 Chapter 10 Thioredoxin 111 Chapter 11 Peroxiredoxin 123 Chapter 12 Thioredoxin Reductase 135 Chapter 13 Sulfiredoxin 143 Chapter 14 Methionine Sulfoxide Reductase 149 Chapter 15 Heme Oxygenase 159 Chapter 16 NAD(P)H:Quinone Oxidoreductase 179 Chapter 17 Paraoxonase 197 Chapter 18 Metal Ion Sequestering Proteins 217 Chapter 19 Other Non-Protein Antioxidants Synthesized by Cells 239 Contents vi SECTION III ANTIOXIDANTS DERIVED FROM THE DIET 263 Chapter 20 Vitamin C 265 Chapter 21 Vitamin E 281 Chapter 22 Carotenoids 297 Chapter 23 Phenolic Compounds 315 SECTION IV SYNTHETIC ANTIOXIDANTS 337 Chapter 24 Antioxidant Enzyme Mimetics 339 Chapter 25 Glutathione Precursors 353 Chapter 26 Spin Traps 367 Chapter 27 Nanomaterials 377 Index 389 Preface Molecular oxygen is essential for aerobic life, yet incomplete reduction or excitation of molecular oxygen during aerobic metabolisms results in the inevitable formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). ROS are capable of causing damage to cellular constituents, including proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. As such, aerobic organisms, including mammals have evolved a series of complementary antioxidant enzymes and non-enzymatic antioxidant mo- lecules to control ROS and thereby protect critical biomolecules from oxidative damage. In addition, many diet-derived compounds have antioxidant activities and thus also contribute to the mammalian antioxidant defenses. Under physiological conditions, ROS and antioxidant defenses are generally in balance. However, increased formation of ROS or compromised antioxidant defenses may disrupt this balance, leading to oxidative stress that may eventually contribute to the development of many diseases. The last two to three decades have witnessed the remarkable advances in our knowledge about ROS and antioxidants in biology and medicine. It has been increasingly recognized that ROS play an important role in diverse disease processes, including cardiovascular disorders, diabetes, neurodegeneration, and cancer. In line with this notion, accumulating evidence also demonstrates the effectiveness of antioxidant-based strategies for the intervention of an in- creasing number of disease processes that involve an oxidative stress mechanism. In this con- text, many synthetic antioxidant compounds have been developed, which can also be used to augment antioxidant defenses to protect against oxidative stress-associated disease pathophy- siology. New knowledge in antioxidant biology and medicine will certainly further enhance our ability to develop more effective mechanistically-based strategies to combat human dis- eases that involve an oxidative stress component. This book covers both the fundamentals and the most recent advances in antioxidant re- search in biology and medicine. The aim of the book is to provide a critical evaluation of the various endogenous and exogenous antioxidants with an emphasis on their role in health and disease. To this end, the book focuses on discussing solid scientific evidence obtained from basic research in mammalian models of human diseases as well as studies conducted directly in human subjects. The book is divided into four sections, as listed below. Section I: Introduction to Oxidative Stress and Antioxidants Section II: Antioxidants Synthesized by Cells Section III: Antioxidants Derived from the Diet Section IV: Synthetic Antioxidants Preface viii To set a stage for the subsequent discussion on how individual antioxidants function to protect against oxidative stress and disease processes, Section I introduces the basic know- ledge on ROS and oxidative stress. It also provides an overview of the different kinds of anti- oxidants, the molecular regulation of antioxidant genes, and the antioxidant-based strategies for disease intervention. Section I has two chapters. Section II consists of seventeen chapters devoted to the discussion of each of the major endogenous antioxidants synthesized by cells with respect to their basic biology and in- volvement in health and disease. Each chapter covers knowledge in three major areas: (1) basic biochemistry and molecular regulation, (2) animal studies on the role in disease processes, and (3) human studies and clinical applications. Section III contains four chapters that cover the major antioxidants derived from the diet: vitamin C, vitamin E, carotenoids, and phenolic compounds. The biochemical properties and role in health and disease (including both experimental and clinical evidence) for each of these diet-derived antioxidants are discussed. Section IV consists of four chapters on synthetic antioxidants, including antioxidant en- zyme mimetics, glutathione precursors, spin traps, and nanomaterials. These chapters describe the chemical and biochemical properties of each of the above four classes of synthetic anti- oxidants with an emphasis on their protective effects in disease processes in both experimen- tal animals and human subjects. It is hoped that this book by integrating knowledge on antioxidants from essentials to ad- vances, and from basic research to clinical applications will provide the reader a unique ap- proach to understanding the rapidly evolving field of antioxidants in biology and medicine. Yunbo Li, MD, PhD Blacksburg, Virginia January, 2011 SECTION I INTRODUCTION TO OXIDATIVE STRESS AND ANTIOXIDANTS Utilization of molecular oxygen by aerobic organisms, including mammals leads to the inevitable formation of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (ROS/RNS) from various meta- bolic processes. ROS/RNS have the potential to damage cellular constituents. As such, aero- bic organisms have evolved a number of antioxidants to protect critical biomolecules from ROS/RNS-mediated damage. Under physiological conditions, formation of ROS/RNS and functioning of antioxidants are generally in balance. However, increased ROS/RNS produc- tion or compromised antioxidant defenses may disrupt this balance, leading to potentially detrimental conditions, such as oxidative stress injury. Understanding of the basic biology of ROS/RNS and oxidative stress is crucial for developing antioxidant-based strategies for the intervention of diseases involving an ROS/RNS-dependent mechanism. Section I introduces the basics related to ROS/RNS and oxidative stress, and provides an overview of antioxidants and their gene regulation. This sets a stage for the subsequent chapters devoted to the discus- sion of individual antioxidants in biology and medicine. Section I consists of two chapters.

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