Anthropology, Missiological Anthropology. The relationship between anthropology and world ...

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Anthropology, Missiological Anthropology
Anthropology, Missiological Anthropology. sions, where Willoughby taught from 1919 and
The relationship between anthropology and Smith lectured from 1939 to 1943, little was
world missions has been a long and profitable done to provide anthropological instruction for
one with the benefits flowing both ways. Though missionaries before World War II. Wheaton Col-
for philosophical reasons recent generations of lege (Illinois) had begun an anthropology depart-
anthropologists have tended to be very critical of ment, and the Wycliffe Bible Translators’ Sum-
missionaries, much of the data used by profes- mer Institute of Linguistics, though primarily
sional anthropologists from earliest days has focused on Linguistics, was serving to alert
come from missionaries. Anthropological pio- many to the need to take culture seriously.
neers such as E. B. Tylor (1832–1917) and J. G. Though Gordon Hedderly Smith had pub-
Frazer (1854–1954) in England, L. H. Morgan lished The Missionary and Anthropology in 1945,
(1818–82) in the United States, and Wilhelm it was Eugene Nida who sparked the movement
Schmidt (1868–1954) in Austria were greatly in- to make anthropology a major component in
debted to missionaries for the data from which missionary thinking. He used his position as sec-
they constructed their theories. Such early an- retary for translations of the American Bible So-
thropological pioneers as R. H. Codrington (1830– ciety to demonstrate to missionaries and their
1922), Lorimer Fison (1832–1907), Diedrich Wes- leaders the value of anthropological insight. His
termann (1875–1956), H. A. Junod (1863–1934), lectures on anthropological topics in the 1940s
and Edwin Smith (1876–1957) were missionaries and early 1950s, published as Customs and Cul-
for part or all of their careers. tures in 1954, contributed greatly to an awaken-
The first of the numerous Protestant mission- ing within the missionary community to the
ary conferences in the English-speaking world to need for and benefits of anthropological insight.
include formal discussion of anthropological By the mid-1950s Nida had surrounded himself
matters was the World Missionary Conference at the Bible society with four very perceptive, an-
in Edinburgh (1910). Roman Catholics led the thropologically oriented translation consultants,
way on the Continent, sponsoring several work- w. a. smalley, W. D. Reyburn, W. L. Wonderly,
shops on missions and ethnology. A notable cen- and J. a. loewen. As these men worked with
ter for ethnological research was established in translators around the world, they demonstrated
Vienna by Schmidt, who devoted his professional the value of anthropology. In 1955, Smalley took
life to researching, teaching, and writing on lan- over the editorship of the bimonthly journal
guages and cultures in order to help missionar- Practical Anthropology (PA), which Robert Taylor
ies. For this purpose he founded the journal An- had started in 1953 at Wheaton with the aim of
thropos in 1906 and the Anthropos Institute in applying anthropology to missions. The writings
1932. of Nida, Smalley, Reyburn, Wonderly, and Loe-
Though the influence of professional anthro- wen in PA were formative for a generation of an-
pology on missionaries was small during this thropologically oriented missionaries working in
era, some impressive anthropological writing the 1950s and 1960s.
by missionaries emerged. Fison with A. W. From 1965 on, another stream of missiological
Howitt published The Kamileroi and the Kurnai, anthropology was developing under Donald Mc-
still considered a basic work on Australian ab- gavran at Fuller Seminary’s School of World
originals. Codrington’s Melanesians contributed Mission. McGavran’s first faculty appointee was
to anthro pology its understanding of mana. Ju- Alan Tippett, an Australian anthropologist who
nod’s two-volume Life of a South African Tribe had worked for two decades in Fiji. The Nida
was years later still regarded as one of the finest stream merged with this stream under Mc-
anthropological monographs. And Schmidt’s Gavran’s next two appointees, Ralph Winter and
twelve-volume study of the origin of religion Charles Kraft, both anthropologists strongly in-
did much to dissuade the academic community fluenced by Nida and the other PA contributors.
from their commitment to an evolutionary These events of the 1950s and 1960s laid the
explanation. foundations for validating missiological anthro-
The most notable early British advocate for pology within the professional subdiscipline of
missiological anthropology was Edwin Smith. applied anthropology. Important publications of
Born in Africa of missionary parents, Smith for the 1960s included Nida’s Message and Mission
three decades wrote and taught widely on Afri- and louis luzbetak’s Church and Cultures,
can cultures. His most famous book is The which focused helpfully on the dynamics of cul-
Golden Stool. Two other British missionary an- tural change. Tippett’s Solomon Islands Christi-
thropologists to note are W. C. Willoughby, who anity showed how competent anthropology
published The Soul of the Bantu, and Denys could be used to analyze Christian witness and
Shropshire, who wrote The Church and Primitive practice. kenneth pike’s Language in Relation to
Peoples. a Unified Theory of the Structure of Human Be-
In America, with the exception of Hartford havior, though long and technical, contributed
Seminary Foundation’s Kennedy School of Mis- important insights concerning the relationships
1
Behavior Patterns
of language and culture. Many of the PA articles brought this topic forcefully to our attention.
were collected by Smalley in Readings in Mis- Marvin Mayers, a Wycliffe translator who
sionary Anthropology, which was followed by taught at Wheaton and later at Biola, both high-
Culture and Human Values, a collection of per- lighted and broadened this theme in his import-
ceptive articles by Loewen. ant book Christianity Confronts Culture. A third
In 1973, PA, then edited by Charles Taber, an important area of application is the contextual-
anthropologist teaching at Emmanuel School of ization or inculturation of Christianity. Kraft in
Religion, was merged into Missiology, the fledg- Christianity in Culture creatively used linguistic
ling journal of the newly formed American Soci- and Bible translation theory as well as basic an-
ety of Missiology. Tippett became the first edi- thropology and Communication theory to pro-
tor. This journal has maintained a strong focus duce a cross- cultural perspective on theology.
on anthropology. This book did much to show both that an an-
Currently, anthropology plays an important thropological approach can positively influence
part in the majority of missionary training pro- theologizing and that Contextualization should
grams in evangelical institutions. The primary be an evangelical issue, not merely an ecumeni-
attention of missiological anthropology is di- cal theory. A fourth important area presently in
rected toward understanding the nature of cul- focus is that of Worldview.
ture and the pervasiveness of its influence on In addition, we should mention Homer Bar-
those we approach with the gospel. A second nett’s psychological anthropology and especially
concern is to understand the influence of culture his ideas on cultural change, which have had a
on the missionaries themselves. To this has been strong influence on Tippett and Luzbetak. More
added the recognition that since the Bible is a recently, the symbolic anthropology of Clifford
cross-cultural book, those who would under- Geertz and Mary Douglas has influenced the per-
stand and interpret it correctly need cultural in- spectives of Paul Hiebert and Sherwood Lingen-
sight. The articles in PA provided understanding felter. Important recent books by missiological
of these and many other important areas.
anthropologists include Tippett’s Introduction to
Over the years, missiological anthropology has
Missiology, Darrell Whiteman’s Melanesians and
sometimes followed the vogues of secular an-
Missionaries, Hiebert’s Anthropological Insights
thropology, sometimes resisted them. Missionary
for Missionaries and Anthropological Reflections
anthropologists have found congenial such secu-
on Missiological Issues, Daniel Shaw’s Transcul-
lar anthropological insights as the focus on spe-
turation (1988), Lingenfelter’s Transforming Cul-
cific cultures, the strengths of research based on
ture (1992) and Agents of Transformation (1996),
participant observation, certain aspects of the
Hiebert and Eloise Meneses’ Incarnational Min-
functionalist emphasis on the internal workings
istry (1995) and Kraft’s Anthropology for Chris-
of culture, the dynamics of cultural change, and
tian Witness (1996). A lifetime of dealing with the
the necessity to understand Worldview. On the Bible in cross-cultural perspective is summa-
other hand, certain secular emphases have
rized in Jacob Loewen’s masterful The Bible in
stirred up the opposition of Christian anthropol-
Cross-Cultural Perspective (1997).
ogists. Among them are the overextension of evo-
charles h. kraft
lutionary and relativistic thinking. Early on, one
of Schmidt’s motivations was to combat the sim- Bibliography. E. E. Evans-Pritchard, Social Anthro-
plistic evolutionary theory concerning the origin pology and Other Essays; S. A. Grunlan and M. K. May-
and development of religion. His Origin of the ers, Cultural Anthropology: A Christian Perspective; P. G.
Idea of God was so successful that most secular Hiebert, Cultural Anthropology; D. L. Whiteman, ed.,
Missionaries, Anthropologists, and Cultural Change.
anthropologists dropped the theory. Christians
have not been so successful in convincing the an-
thropological establishment that though certain Behavior Patterns. Christian missionaries have
aspects of evolutionary and relativistic thinking always concerned themselves with the behavior
make sense, they need to be balanced by the rec- of other peoples. Disobedience to even the most
ognition that someone started things and estab- basic of God’s laws constitutes evidence of their
lished certain absolutes. sinful condition. Prescribed behavioral change
There are four general areas in which the in- affords evidence of their conversion. However,
sights of anthropology are enabling greater ef- with the development of the social sciences, Ger-
fectiveness in Christian ministry. First, the two- man missiology since the latter part of the nine-
way flow of influence between missiological teenth century and American missiology since
anthropology and Bible Translation continues World War II have reflected increased under-
to be significant, especially in the United States. standing of human behavior.
Nida has had a lot to do with this. A second sig- Most prominent in this matter have been the
nificant application of anthropology relates to contributions of the behavioral sciences—sociol-
the influences of culture on the communication ogy, psychology, and cultural anthropology (in-
process. Nida’s pioneering Message and Mission cluding linguistics and cross-cultural communi-
2
Biculturalism
cation). As part of a process termed socialization is prepared for the encounter with behavioral
by the sociologist and enculturation by the an- patterns that have meanings entirely foreign to
thropologist (see culture learning), people con- her or him. Culture change is most readily initi-
sciously and unconsciously learn which behav- ated by discovering what is happening at the in-
ioral patterns are expected and which are not formal “imitation of models” level of learning,
acceptable in their respective cultures. It is these bringing it to the level of awareness, and intro-
learned action patterns, as opposed to reflexive ducing change at that point. conversion is best
and instinctive patterns, that are of special im- understood, not first of all as change at the be-
portance to missiologists. Taking many of their havioral outer layer of culture, but at its basic
clues from the sciences, missiologists have at- belief system or worldview inner core.
tempted to integrate new understandings with david J. hesselgrave
Scripture and the missionary experience. These
Bibliography. E. T. Hall, The Silent Language; D. J.
attempts have not always been completely valid
Hesselgrave, Communicating Christ Cross-Culturally;
(indeed, social science theories themselves are in
E. A. Nida, Message and Mission.
flux), but on the whole this process has resulted
in insights into human behavior that have
Biculturalism. Ability to live comfortably in two
greatly enhanced missionary theory and prac-
differing cultural perspectives, crossing freely
tice.
from one to the other as occasion merits. How-
Reacting to earlier psychological studies that
ever, this ability may be conceived as ranging
emphasized the study of inner experiences or
across a scale measuring the depth of identifica-
feelings by subjective methods, early in this cen-
tion. On one end, it simply indicates the ability of
tury John B. Watson proposed that psychologists
a person to understand both cultures, which
confine their study to observable behavior that
might be termed cognitive biculturalism. At a sec-
can be studied by objective procedures yielding
ond level, it refers to the ability to operate com-
statistically significant results. While not agree-
fortably and without conscious consideration in
ing with Watson’s reductionism, B. F. Skinner
nevertheless focused on controlled experiments each cultural setting. This may be called func-
and postulated a type of psychological condition- tional biculturalism. At the deepest level is the
ing called reinforcement. Skinner’s learning the- ability of the person to truly and naturally identify
ory is reflected in certain aspects of theological at the root level of both cultures emotionally and
education by extension with its programmed cognitively, which may be called root bicultural-
textbooks and learning. Behaviorism as such, ism.
however, yielded center stage to the humanism While there is little doubt that short-term
of Abraham Maslow and others in the 1950s, and cross-cultural workers experience culture stress
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs has exerted a and some may experience changes in the way
greater influence in mission theory. they view the world, only rarely if at all will they
Of greater missiological importance has been progress beyond cognitive biculturalism. Even
the influence of anthropologists such as Ed- though they may have many of the basic facts of
ward T. Hall and linguists such as eugene a. the new culture, they simply do not have the
nida. Hall proposed that human behavior can be time and exposure to internalize those facts as
understood in terms of ten “primary message sys- “natural” to themselves. Their biculturalism is
tems,” only one of which is verbal. Hall’s overall generally limited to cognitive awareness and
theory has not met with widespread understand- emotional attachment to their idealizations of
ing or approval, but his ideas on the “silent lan- the new culture, but only time and continuous
guage” and the communicative aspects of such exposure enable progress beyond that.
things as time and space have captured the atten- Those who grow up in a single cultural envi-
tion of American missionaries for over a genera- ronment but who sojourn in another culture for
tion. an extended period often reach the stage of func-
Among missionary theorists, Nida has perhaps tional biculturalism. However, they can be said
exerted the most influence in recent years. In ad- to be bicultural only to the extent that the new
dition to his impact on the understanding of lan- culture becomes a second “home” to them and
guage learning and translation, Nida has written they are able to identify with both cultures as
insightfully on the relationship between belief “natural.” For those who do not leave their cul-
systems and behavior, the symbolic nature of re- ture until adulthood, moving beyond the func-
ligious behavior, social structure and communi- tional to the deepest level of root biculturalism is
cative behavior, and more. unattainable simply because, as recent brain re-
As a result of studies such as the foregoing, search indicates, the windows of opportunity to
contemporary missionaries can be far better pre- identify at the deepest levels linguistically, psy-
pared to deal with behavioral issues encountered chologically, socially, and emotionally with the
when working in another culture. culture new culture have passed. Their level of adapta-
shock can be ameliorated when the missionary tion, which may be truly remarkable and take
3
Bonding
decades to accomplish, simply cannot match ple’s perspective in order to draw them into a
those of indigenes in the second culture. belonging relationship with God.
Simply growing up in a bicultural environ- Bonding is based on an earlier concept—iden-
ment, however, does not guarantee the develop- tification—in which the missionary was encour-
ment of root biculturalism. Children who do not aged to enter sympathetically into the lives of the
grow up bilingual, for example, will miss an es- people in order to understand their way of think-
sential element of the culture whose language ing, and discover ways in which the gospel could
they do not speak, and will not be bicultural at enter in and transform their patterns of life. It is
the deepest level. The children of missionaries also rooted in a belief that the incarnation of
are often bicultural at the functional level, but Christ (John 1:14) provides the model for mis-
less often at the root level. The same can be said sionary ministry.
of immigrant families, whose children likewise Criticism of the bonding concept has centered
grow up in a family of one culture but in an envi- around three main areas: (1) questioning whether
ronment of another. At times in searching for it is necessary or even possible for the newcomer
their own identity they struggle to amalgamate to attempt to bond with the new community;
elements of both cultures into a new “third” cul- (2) dislike of the use of the term and of the anal-
tural framework unique to them as individuals, ogy with parent/infant bonding; and (3) disagree-
giving rise to the term third culture kids ment about the relative importance of living with
(TCKs). a family in the early days in a new community.
a. scott moreau elizabeth s. brewster
Bibliography. E. T. and E. S. Brewster, Bonding and
Bonding. In order to minister effectively in an- the Missionary Task; M. C. Chao, PA 7:1 (1960): 16–17;
other culture, one must learn to communicate S. Granberg, EMQ 24:4 (1988): 344–50; D. N. Larson
well with the people of that culture. But mean- and W. A. Smalley, Becoming Bilingual; J. A. Loewen,
ingful communication requires more than sim- PA 11:4 (1964): 145–60; K. McElhanon, EMQ 27:4
(1991): 390–93; W. F. Muldrow, PA 18:5 (1971): 208–21;
ply being able to speak the language; it also im-
E. A. Nida, PA 2:4 (1955): 90–95; L. E. Reed, Preparing
plies developing meaningful personal
Missionaries for Intercultural Communication; W. D.
relationships within that cultural context, and a
Reyburn, PA 7:1 (1960): 1–15; W. A. Smalley, PA 5:2
willingness to listen and to see life from the oth- (1958): 83–84.
er’s point of view.
The term “bonding” was coined by Thomas
Caste. A hereditary division of any society into
and Elizabeth Brewster in 1979 to refer to a mis- classes on the basis of occupation, color, wealth,
sionary’s deep sense of belonging in relationships or religion. More specifically, in hinduism, caste
in a second culture and the community’s accep- (jati) is the permanent social group into which a
tance of the newcomer as an accepted outsider. person is born, with social and religious obliga-
The term was developed by analogy to the bond- tions determined for a lifetime by one’s caste.
ing that takes place between an infant and its The beginnings of the caste system in India are
parents at the time of birth. thought to date back to the invasion of Indo-
Bonding with a new community can be facili- European Aryans (or Vedic peoples) who mi-
tated by the new missionary’s immersion in the grated into the Indus Valley about 1000 b.c. Varna
life of the new community and society—spend- refers to the social divisions believed to have
ing as much time as possible with the local peo- been characteristic of these people. One theory is
ple upon arrival in the community, preferably that the organization of castes was based on
living with a local family for the first few weeks varna (color). Aryans were light, while the in-
or months. In this way, the newcomer begins to vaded peoples were dark. Others believe stratifi-
enter the community and to enter into the peo- cation resulted in castes developing from social
ple’s thought patterns, worldview, and values. It classes or other types of differences. During this
also enables the community to begin to know early period, groups and strata of Hindu society
and understand the newcomer. began to form. No historical records exist for this
Bonding is facilitated by entering with a period, but from the hymns, legends, and other
learner attitude. The one who is a learner is will- accounts, it seems that the social system of the
ing to be dependent on the people of the commu- newcomers was composed of four major divi-
nity and to be vulnerable with them. The learner sions: the brahmana, a sacerdotal or priestly cate-
role implies the humility to make mistakes in gory; the rajanya, a chiefly, noble, or warrior cat-
language and culture and to receive correction. egory; the vaisya, who were variously perceived
By developing relationships and gaining an as commoners, farmers, or merchants; and the
empathetic understanding of the people’s feel- sudra, a category of servants or commoners of a
ings, desires, and fears, the new missionary can lower status.
adopt habits of lifestyle and ministry that can en- Social anthropologists suggest that the per-
able him or her to be good news from the peo- sistent feature of Indian society has been the ex-
4
Communication
istence of endogamous descent groups (a system setting” than that afforded by alternative words,
in which people must marry within their own he chose the word “communication.”
group). Over time such groups were integrated From very early days the progress of the gospel
into local hierarchical systems of cooperation has been aided by the communication skills of its
and interdependence. The caste system typically proponents. One thinks immediately of John the
includes the following components: (1) a local Baptist’s preaching in Judea, Peter’s sermon on
population composed of the series of mutually Pentecost, and Paul’s ministry to the Gentiles.
exclusive castes; (2) segments structured by caste Jesus was a master communicator. However, a
in endogamous descent groups, ideally related tension is introduced at this point because the
unilineally; (3) a dominant caste with political New Testament makes it clear that human wis-
and economic power over the others; (4) an oc- dom and communication skills are not sufficient
cupational specialty related to each caste; (5) a to draw people to Christ and advance his king-
ritual system of exchange of food, goods, and dom (cf. 2 Cor. 2:1–6). Though the Lord Jesus
services concerned with purity and pollution as commissioned the apostles to disciple the nations
well as economics; (6) a ranking of each caste ac- by preaching and teaching, he commanded them
cording to their respective degrees of pollution. to stay in Jerusalem until empowered by the Holy
Various movements to reform the caste system Spirit (Acts 1:8). Elenctics, the “science of the
have made some impact on the traditional struc- conviction of sin” (Herman Bavinck), deals with
ture. Buddhism, Islam, and Christianity have all this tension between human and divine compo-
made inroads into caste norms. It is significant, nents in Christian communication and is a piv-
however, that most of the reform movements otal, though often neglected, concern in missiol-
have resulted in castes of their own, evolving ogy.
into exclusive, endogamous sects. Mahatma Augustine was perhaps the first to introduce
Gandhi’s programs were aimed at the removal of secular communication theory to the church in a
the caste system, but the divisions persist even systematic way. Called as a young man to be the
rhetor (legal orator) of Milan, Italy, he was pro-
under modern pressures of Westernization.
foundly impressed by the eloquence of the re-
Since caste in India has always functioned as a
nowned preacher of Milan, Ambrose. Converted
powerful religious system of belief, movements
and baptized in 387, he returned to Hippo in
to lessen the influence or abolish the caste sys-
North Africa where he became bishop in 396.
tem have so far failed.
Augustine questioned the Christian use of the
Christian missions have for the most part ig-
rhetorical knowledge and skills he and various
nored caste distinctions. Those who join a Chris-
other church leaders of the time had mastered at
tian church are compelled to join a church com-
the university. Taking his cue from the experi-
munity outside the caste system, automatically
ence of the Israelites who were commanded to
forcing them downward from all their social and
take clothing, vases, and ornaments of silver and
family relationships. Indications are that people
gold with them upon their exodus from Egypt,
would become Christians more readily if they
he concluded that “gold from Egypt is still gold.”
were able to remain in their own social group-
Profane knowledge and communication skills
ing. And yet many Christians maintain that the
can be used in kingdom service. Augustine then
freedom found in new life in Christ (Gal. 3:26–
proceeded to write On Christian Doctrine, Book
29; Eph. 2) transcends the divisions of caste, and
IV, which has been called the first manual of
that the gospel challenges injustices associated
Chris tian preaching.
with caste.
Augustine’s work constituted an auspicious be-
norman e. allison ginning, but only a beginning. Down through the
Bibliography. P. Kolenda, Caste in Contemporary centuries and especially for post-Reformation
India: Beyond Organic Solidarity; W. Matthews, World Re- British and then American clergy, classical rhe-
ligions; M. N. Srinivas, Caste in Modern India and Other torical theory informed homiletical theory and
Essays; R. D. Winter and D. A. Fraser, PWCM, pp. B:193– preaching methodology. Influential pulpits have
212. been occupied by great orators familiar with the
likes of Plato, Aristotle, Quintilian, Cicero, and
Communication. Communication is the mis- Fenelon. Only recently has the summum bonum
sionary problem par excellence. The word comes of ancient classical education, rhetoric, been
from the Latin word communis (common). In downplayed to the point that the very word has
order to fulfill the great commission a “com- lost its original meaning and connotes flowery
monality” must be established with the various (and empty?) speech. Historically, both church
peoples of the world—a commonality that makes and mission have profited greatly from a knowl-
it possible for them to understand and embrace edge of classical rhetoric.
the gospel of Christ. Accordingly, when Hendrick It must be admitted, however, that “Egyptian
Kraemer sought to place questions having to do gold” came with a price. Ethnocentric rhetori-
with the missionary task in a “wider and deeper cians of ancient times believed that if foreign
5
Cross-Cultural Evangelism
audiences did not think and respond as Athe- also have to do with the interanimation among
nians and Romans did, they at least should be language, cognition, and worldview; the rela-
taught to do so. Until comparatively recently, tionship among form, meaning, and function;
Western clergy and missionaries alike have the role of culture in special revelation and
tended toward the same provincialism. With bible translation, interpretation, and applica-
global exploration and then the dawn of the tion; and the relative importance of respondent
electric age, however, change became inevitable. understandings and preferences in contextual-
In modern times monoculturalism has been re- izing the Christian message. The significance
placed by multiculturalism; “new rhetoricians” accorded to the findings of the various sciences
speak of “multiple rhetorics”; speech theory has in these discussions, as well as in missionary
been eclipsed by communication theory; and communication theory and practice in general,
communication theory takes into account not serves to indicate that Augustine’s “profane
only face-to-face or Interpersonal Communica- knowledge” problem is a perennial one. That
tion, but Mass Communication and cross-cul- being the case, contemporary theorists stand to
tural, Intercultural Com munication as well. benefit not just from his insight that Egyptian
As concerns the Christian mission, post–World gold is still gold, but also from his reminders
War II years especially have witnessed great that biblical knowledge is to be considered supe-
strides forward in this regard. First came the un- rior both qualitatively and quantitatively, and
paralleled number of cross-cultural contacts oc- that secular approaches are to be used with
casioned by the war itself. This was attended by moderation.
numerous writings on culture, language, and david J. hesselgrave
communication. Among secular writings, The Si-
Bibliography. J. F. Engel, Contemporary Christian
lent Language and other works by Edward T. Hall
Communications; E. T. Hall, The Silent Language; D. J.
had the greatest impact. But earlier contribu-
Hesselgrave, Communicating Christ Cross-Culturally;
tions of Christian scholars such as hendrick H. Kraft, Communication Theory for Christian Witness;
kraemer and the postwar writings of Jacob Loe- E. A. Nida, Message and Mission; D. Richardson, Peace
wen, William D. Reyburn, William Samarin, Eu- Child.
gene A. Nida, and others also bore fruit. Nida’s
Message and Mission: The Communication of the Cross-Cultural Evangelism. In one sense any
Christian Faith, first published in 1960 and then Evangelism involves crossing a cultural divide,
revised, augmented, and republished in 1990, since the evangelist must communicate spiritual
has perhaps been most influential in shaping truth to spiritually dead people who in their nat-
missionary theory and practice. Authors of ural state are unable to comprehend it. Cross-
widely used texts such as Charles Kraft and cultural evangelism, however, has the added
David Hesselgrave readily acknowledge their challenge of communication between people of
debt to Nida. Written from his perspective as a different worldviews and Belief Systems. As
marketing specialist, James F. Engel has contrib- such, it is more often considered true missionary
uted a comprehensive text highlighting audience witness (whether geographical distance is in-
analysis and media communication. At a popular volved or not) than is evangelism between mem-
level, Don Richardson’s account of how the gos- bers of the same culture.
pel was communicated to the West Irian Sawi culture, of course, is generally seen as a soci-
tribespeople has had a significant impact. ety’s folkways, mores, language, art and architec-
Most widely used to illustrate and examine the ture, and political and economic structures; it is
communication process are cybernetic models the expression of the society’s worldview. World-
based on electronic media. Thus classical catego- view has been described as the way a people
ries (speaker, speech, audience) have largely looks outwardly upon itself and the universe, or
given way to new categories and nomenclature the way it sees itself in relationship to all else.
such as source, message, respondent, channel, For the cross-cultural evangelist, Witness in-
encode, decode, noise, feedback, and the like. volves a thorough understanding of one’s own
One or another version of Nida’s three-culture culture, the biblical context in which God’s Word
model of intercultural missionary communica- was given, and the culture of those among whom
tion is widely used to introduce important cul- evangelism is being done. The message must be
tural components and highlight the relationship tailored or contextualized in such a way as to re-
among cultures of Bible times, the missionary main faithful to the biblical text while under-
source, and target culture respondents. standable and relevant to the receptor’s context.
For many years theorists and practitioners The late twentieth century has seen, along
alike have discussed issues such as the best with widespread acceptance of anthropological
starting point for gospel communication (the insights, a flowering of respect for culture in
nature and attributes of God or the person and missions and evangelism. James Engel devised a
work of Christ) and the establishment of com- scale to measure people’s understanding of the
mon ground with the hearers. Current issues gospel and their movement toward Christ. It can
6
Cross-Cultural Ministry
be used to gauge the spiritual knowledge and in- Use of Western forms of communication may
volvement of both individuals and groups. At one stigmatize the gospel as alien in some cultures.
end of the Engel Scale are those with no aware- A cross-cultural approach advocated for shame
ness of Christianity (-7), followed by those aware cultures—some Islamic societies, for example—
of the existence of Christianity (-6), followed by is to emphasize the gospel as the answer for de-
those with some knowledge of the gospel (-5). filement and uncleanness rather than sin and
Conversion is numerically neutral on the Engel guilt. J. Nathan Corbitt distinguishes between
Scale. At its far end are incorporation of the be- hard media (media more concrete in format and
liever into a Christian fellowship (+2) and active presentation, such as books and films) and soft
gospel propagation by the believer (+3). Bridging media (media allowing flexibility during its cre-
the knowledge gap often, but not always, in- ation and use, such as storytelling, drama,
volves cross-cultural evangelism. music, and conversation). Corbitt says that to
At the Lausanne Congress on World Evange- communicate across cultures, evangelists must
lism (1974), Ralph Winter argued that 2.7 bil- “soften” their media—using local people and fo-
lion people cannot be won to Christ by cusing on the process of Christianity rather than
“near-neighbor evangelism” since they have no its specific products—to spark the greatest
Christian neighbors. Winter said evangelists amount of understanding and communication
must cross cultural, language, and geographical within a community.
barriers, learn the languages and cultures of Some critics have questioned the effectiveness
these unreached peoples, present the gospel to of popular evangelism tools such as the Jesus
them, and plant culturally relevant churches Film and Evangelism Explosion when used apart
among them. Winter delineated three kinds of from an adequate understanding of the culture.
evangelism: same culture (E-1), culture closely Steffen argues that before the Jesus film is
related to one’s own (E-2), and culture different shown, the audience’s worldview must be known,
than one’s own (E-3). Winter’s emphasis on the presenters must earn the right to be heard,
crossing cultural boundaries to reach other cul- the film must be seen first by the community’s
tural groups laid the foundation for the un- information gatekeepers, the presenters must
reached peoples movement and the aD 2000 and grasp how the community makes decisions and
Beyond Movement. Winter clearly distinguishes must know how to incorporate converts into
between evangelism (presenting the gospel to healthy churches, and the audience must have a
one’s own people) and missions (crossing cul- significant foundation for the gospel. Not to have
tural boundaries). these cultural prerequisites in place, he and oth-
At the 1978 Lausanne Committee consultation ers argue, is to invite nominalism or syncretism
on “Gospel and Culture,” thirty-three missions with our evangelism.
leaders and theologians drafted The Willowbank stanley m. guthrie
Report, which set down a detailed acknowledg-
Bibliography. J. N. Corbitt, EMQ 27:2 (April 1991):
ment of the critical role of culture in missionary
160–65; D. J. Hesselgrave, Communicating Christ
communication. Included in the document were
Cross-Culturally; T. Steffen, EMQ 32:2 (April 1996):
evangelical understandings of culture, Scripture, 178–85; idem, EMQ 29:3 (July 1993): 272–76;
the content and communication of the gospel, B. Thomas, EMQ 30:3 (July 1994): 284–90; R. D. Win-
witness among Muslims, a call for humility, and ter, and S. C. Hawthorne, eds., Perspectives on the
a look at conversion and culture. The authors as- World Christian Movement.
serted that conversion should not “de-culturize”
a convert (see also Cultural Conversion). They Cross-Cultural Ministry. The theological basis
also acknowledged the validity of group, as well for cross-cultural ministry lies in its examples
as individual, conversions (see also People Move- within both Old and New Testaments, coupled
ments). Participants noted the difference be- with the universal nature of the Christian faith
tween regeneration and conversion, the dangers and the Lord’s Commission to “disciple the na-
of Syncretism, and the church’s influence on cul- tions.” It may be further argued that the incarna-
ture (see also Gospel and Culture). tion of Christ demands that we take culture seri-
As evangelical understanding of culture has ously in ministry, because it is in the realities of
progressed, a number of innovative evangelism the cultural context that the gospel is manifested
methods have been advanced. Noting that the (see incarnational mission ). Thus Gitari has
theology of the Bible is often encased in stories, written, “Jesus did not become a Jew as a conve-
Tom Steffen of Biola University and others argue nient illustration of general truths. He came into
that Storytelling can be more effective in oral real problems, debates, issues struggles and con-
cultures than the Western-style cognitive teach- flicts which concerned the Jewish people.” The
ing approach. Baptists working among the Mus- gospel requires specific cultural contexts in
lim Kotokoli people of Togo have found that sto- which to be manifested.
rytelling can lower cultural barriers to the The missionary expansion of the church from
gospel. its earliest days is evidence of the seriousness
7
Culture
with which Christians have grasped and imple- The practical expression of the Christian faith
mented cross-cultural ministry. In recent times in a culture is a pioneer venture which is liable
the social sciences have contributed to the con- to the criticism that the true nature of the gospel
scious acknowledgment of the importance of may become distorted by syncretism or compro-
culture in relation to this missionary endeavor. mise. In the West there has been a debate be-
eugene a. nida’s Customs and Cultures stated tween evangelicals and liberal Christians over
that “Good missionaries have always been good how best to represent Christianity within a mod-
‘anthropologists’ . . . on the other hand, some ern scientific culture. In the Muslim world, Phil
missionaries have been only ‘children of their Parshall’s New Paths in Muslim Evangelism laid
generation’ and have carried to the field a dis- out the contextualization of Christian mission
torted view of race and progress, culture and civ- among Muslims (see muslim mission work).
ilization, Christian and non-Christian ways of This not only covered issues of communication,
life.” “theological bridges to salvation,” but also the
The context for much nineteenth-century Prot- forms and practices of a culturally relevant
estant missions was that of European colonial “Muslim-convert church.” Others have argued
expansion and this resulted in examples of the that the creation of separate convert churches
export of European culture and expressions of and the Christianization of Muslim devotional
Christianity alongside the gospel (see colonial- means in “Jesus Mosques” (such as the position
ism). The twentieth century witnessed first the of prayer or putting the Bible on a special stand)
increasing American missionary endeavor and fall short of the requirements for Christian unity
the rise of Two-Thirds World missions (see in Muslim lands where historic Christian com-
non-western mission boards and societies). As munities exist. This debate is a reminder that
a result of the internationalizing of missions and Christian mission needs to be sensitive to a
the globalization of communications (with its broader range of issues than the culture of the
own consequences in terms of cultural change), unevangelized.
the issues of culture and mission are today even patrick sookhdeo
more complex. Complementing the recognition
Bibliography. D. Gitari, Proclaiming Christ in
of the importance of culture in missionary com-
Christ’s Way—Studies in Integral Evangelism, pp. 101–
munication has been an examination of culture
21; C. H. Kraft, Christianity in Culture; Lausanne Com-
itself from a Christian and biblical perspective.
mittee for World Evangelisation, The Lausanne Cove-
In the New Testament we find that Paul’s willing- nant—An Exposition and Commentary by John Stott.
ness to lay aside personal freedoms and status idem, The Willowbank Report—Gospel and Culture;
for the sake of the gospel (1 Cor. 8:9–13; 9:22; H. Niebuhr, Christ and Culture; E. A. Nida, Customs
Phil. 3:8) illustrate the primacy of the gospel and Cultures; P. Parshall, New Paths in Muslim Evange-
over the messenger’s attitudes and behavior. lism.
Bishop stephen neill has asserted that there
are some customs which the gospel cannot toler- Culture. The word “culture” may point to many
ate, there are some customs which can be toler- things—the habits of the social elite; disciplined
ated for the time being, and there are customs tastes expressed in the arts, literature, and enter-
which are fully acceptable to the gospel. The tainment; particular stages of historical and
Lausanne Covenant affirmed that “Culture must human development. We use the term “culture”
always be tested and judged by Scripture. Be- to refer to the common ideas, feelings, and val-
cause man is God’s creature, some of his culture ues that guide community and personal behav-
is rich in beauty and goodness. Because he is ior, that organize and regulate what the group
fallen, all of it is tainted with sin and some of it thinks, feels, and does about God, the world, and
is demonic.” Bishop David Gitari has welcomed humanity. It explains why the Sawi people of
this emphasis that “all cultures must always be Irian Jaya regard betrayal as a virtue, while the
tested by the scriptures.” American sees it as a vice. It undergirds the Ko-
The relativization of the cultural expressions rean horror at the idea of Westerners’ placing
of the Christian faith has resulted in the popular their elderly parents in retirement homes, and
acceptance within missions of the concept of Western horror at the idea of the Korean venera-
contextualization, which aims to be faithful to tion of their ancestors. It is the climate of opin-
Scripture and relevant to culture. Such an ap- ion that encourages an Eskimo to share his wife
proach intends to apply the absolutes to which with a guest and hides the wife of an Iranian
Scripture refers within a plurality of culturally fundamentalist Muslim in a body-length veil.
appropriate forms. However, disquiet at the The closest New Testament approximation for
prominence currently given to contextualization culture is kosmos (world), but only when it refers
in missiology was expressed by Christians with a to language-bound, organized human life (1 Cor.
Reformed perspective at a Caucus on Mission to 14:10) or the sin-contaminated system of values,
Muslims held at Four Brooks Conference Centre traditions, and social structures of which we are
in 1985. a part (John 17:11).
8
Culture
Cultures are patterns shared by, and acquired The Dimensions of Culture. All cultures
in, a social group. Large enough to contain sub- shape their models of reality around three di-
cultures within itself, a culture is shared by the mensions: the cognitive (What do we know?); the
society, the particular aggregate of persons who affective (What do we feel?); the evaluative
participate in it. In that social group we learn (Where are our values and allegiances?). The
and live out our values. cognitive dimension varies from culture to cul-
The social and kinship connections that shape ture. Take, for example, the view of time. In the
a group of people vary from culture to culture. West time is a linear unity of past, present, and
Americans in general promote strong individual- infinite future; in Africa time is basically a
ism and nuclear families, usually limited tightly two-dimensional phenomenon, with a long past,
to grandparents, parents, and children. Individ- a present, and an immediate future. Similarly,
ual initiative and decision making are encour- cultures differ in their conceptions of space, that
aged by the belief in individual progress. By is what they consider to be public, social, per-
comparison, Asians and Africans as a rule define sonal, and intimate zones. For an American, the
personal identity in terms of the family, clan, or personal zone extends from one foot to three feet
kinship group. Families are extended units with away, the intimate zone from physical contact to
wide connections. And decision making is a so- a foot away. For Latin Americans the zones are
cial, multipersonal choice reflecting those con- smaller. Thus when an Anglo engages a Latino in
casual conversation, the Latino perceives the
nections: “We think, therefore I am.”
Anglo as distant and cold. Why? What for the
Cultures are not haphazard collections of iso-
Anglo is the social zone is for the Latino the pub-
lated themes. They are integrated, holistic pat-
lic zone.
terns structured around the meeting of basic
Affective and evaluative dimensions also differ
human needs. Their all-embracing nature, in
from culture to culture. Beauty in the eye of a
fact, is the assumption behind the divine calling
Japanese beholder is a garden of flowers and
to humankind to image God’s creative work by
empty space carefully planned and arranged to
taking up our own creative cultural work in the
heighten the deliberative experience. To the
world (Gen. 1:28–30; see Cultural Mandate).
Westerner a garden’s beauty is found in floral
Eating and drinking and whatever cultural activ-
profusion and variety.
ities we engage in (1 Cor. 10:31)—all show the
Whom can we marry? In the West that is an
mark of interrelationship as God’s property and
individual decision; in clan-oriented societies the
ours (1 Cor. 3:21b–23). Thus the Dogon people of
kinship group or the family decides. Among the
central Mali build their homes, cultivate their
Dogon a man’s wife should be chosen from
land, and plan their villages in the shape of an
among the daughters of a maternal uncle; the
oval egg. This represents their creation myth of
girl becomes a symbolic substitute for her hus-
the great placenta from which emerged all space,
band’s mother, a reenactment of mythical incest
all living beings, and everything in the world.
found in the Dogon account of the creation of
Among the ancient Chinese the cosmic pattern
the universe. Among the kings of Hawaii and the
of balance and harmony, the yin and the yang,
pharaohs of Egypt, brother-sister marriage was
was to be re-created again and again in daily de-
practiced to preserve lineal purity and family in-
cisions. The yin was negative, passive, weak, and
heritance.
destructive. The yang was positive, active,
The Levels of Cultures. Cultures are also mul-
strong, and constructive. Individuality came
tilayered models of reality. Like a spiral, they
from these opposites. The yin was female, move from the surface level of what we call cus-
mother, soft, dark; the yang was male, father, toms through the cognitive, affective, and evalu-
hard, bright. The decisions where to live and ative dimensions to the deep level of Worldview.
where to be buried were made by choosing a site To illustrate, the Confucian ethic of moral eti-
in harmony with these opposites. quette consists largely in making sure that rela-
The anthropological theory of functionalism tionships properly reflect the hierarchical scale.
underlined this holism; subsequent studies, how- In China and Korea, where cultural backgrounds
ever, have introduced modifications. Functional- are shaped deeply by the Confucian ethic, the
ism tended to assume that cultures were fully idea of Li (righteousness) makes specific de-
integrated and coherent bounded sets. Later mands at different cultural levels: different forms
scholarship, wary of the static coloring, admits of speech in addressing people on different levels
that this is only more or less so. Cultures are nei- of the social scale; ritual practices; rules of pro-
ther aggregates of accumulated traits nor seam- priety; observance of sharply defined under-
less garments. There is a dynamic to human cul- standings of the relationships of king to subject,
tures that makes full integration incomplete; older brother to younger brother, husband to
gaps and inconsistencies provide opportunities wife, father to son. And linking all these together
for change and modification, some rapid and is the religious perception of their specific
some slow. places, in the Tao (the Way, the rule of heaven).
9
Culture
In this process, cultural forms (e.g., language, they display, to greater or lesser degree, both the
gestures, relationships, money, clothing) are in- wisdom of God and the flaws of sin.
vested with symbolic meanings conventionally religion, given this understanding, cannot be,
accepted by the community. They interpret the as functionalism argues, simply one of many
forms and stamp them with meaning and value human needs demanding satisfaction. As the
(see Symbol, Symbolism). Each cultural form, human response to the revelation of God, it per-
ambivalent by itself, thus becomes a hermeneuti- meates the whole of life. It is the core in the
cal carrier of values, attitudes, and connotations. structuring of culture, the integrating and radi-
Clothing can indicate social status, occupation, cal response of humanity to the revelation of
level of education, ritual participation. Foot God. Life is religion.
washing in ancient Hebrew culture became an In the building of culture, worldview or reli-
expression of hospitality (Luke 7:44). In Chris- gion is the central controlling factor: (1) it ex-
tian ritual it became a symbol of humble service plains how and why things came to be as they
(John 13:4–5). are, and how and why they continue or change;
This symbolic arbitrariness can either help or (2) it validates the basic institutions, values, and
hinder communication between persons and goals of a society; (3) it provides psychological
groups. Jesus’ reproof of hypocrites as a genera- reinforcement for the group; (4) it integrates the
tion of vipers (Luke 3:7) would be a great compli- society, systematizing and ordering the culture’s
ment to the Balinese, who regard the viper as a perceptions of reality into an overall design; (5)
sacred animal of paradise. On the other hand, his it provides, within its conservatism, opportuni-
rebuke of the cunning Herod as that fox (Luke ties for perceptual shifts and alterations in con-
13:32) would make good sense to the same Bali- ceptual structuring. This fifth characteristic of
nese, in whose fables the jackal plays a treacher- worldview, that is, susceptibility to change,
ous part. The Korean concept of Li (righteous- opens the door for the transforming leaven of the
ness) can be a point of contact with the Bible, but gospel. The coming of Christ as both Savior and
also a point of confusion, as the Confucian focus judge takes every thought captive (2 Cor. 10:5).
on works confronts the Pauline focus on grace. When that divine work is initiated, people, under
At the core of all cultures is the deep level the impulse of the Spirit, begin to change their
where worldviews, the prescientific factories and worldview and, as a result, their culture.
bank vaults of presuppositions, are generated In the language of cultural anthropology,
and stored. Here the human heart (Prov. 4:23; the change wrought by the gospel is a threefold
Jer. 29:13; Matt. 12:34), the place where our most process: reevaluation (a change of allegiance),
basic commitments exist, responds to those di- reinterpretation (a change of evaluative princi-
vine constants or universals that are reshaped by ples), and rehabituation (a series of changes in
every culture (Rom. 2:14–15). Twisted by the im- behavior). With regard to the change in the indi-
pact of sin and shaped by time and history, those vidual, the Bible speaks of repentance (Luke
internalizations produce cultures that both obey 5:32) and conversion (Acts 26:20). With regard to
and pervert God’s demands (Rom. 1:18–27). In the wider social world, it speaks of the new cre-
some cultures, for example, murder is con- ation (2 Cor. 5:17); the age to come, which has
demned, but becomes an act of bravery when the already begun in this present age (Eph. 1:21);
person killed belongs to a different social group. and the eschatological renewal of all things
Other peoples view theft as wrong, but only (Matt. 19:28), the beginnings of which we taste
when it involves the stealing of public property. now in changed behavior (Titus 3:5).
Thus Native Americans, who see the land as a Peripheral changes run the risk of encouraging
common possession of all, as the mother of all Cultural Conversion rather than conversion to
life, view the white intruders with their assump- Christ. The goal of missions must be larger, to
tion of private ownership as thieves. When the bring our cultures into conformity to the king-
Masai of Africa steal cattle, they do not regard dom of god and its fullness. The whole of cul-
the act as theft, for they see all cattle as their nat- tural life ought to be subjected to the royal au-
ural possession by way of gift from God. thority of him who has redeemed us by his blood
Besides reflecting and reshaping God’s de- (Matt. 28:18–20).
mands, cultures are also the means of God’s harvie m. conn
common grace. Through his providential control
God uses the shaping of human cultures to check Bibliography. E. Hall, Silent Language; P. Hiebert,
Anthropological Insights for Missionaries; C. Kraft,
the rampant violence of evil and preserve human
Christianity in Culture; S. Lingenfelter, Transforming
continuity. They provide guidelines to restrain
Culture: A Challenge for Christian Mission; J. Loewen,
our worst impulses, sanctions of shame or Guilt Culture and Human Values; L. Luzbetak, The Church
to keep us in line. Cultures and worldviews, then, and Cultures: New Perspectives in Missiological Anthro-
are not simply neutral road maps. Created by pology; E. Nida, Customs, Culture, and Christianity;
those who bear the image of god (Gen. 1:27–28), B. Ray, African Religions: Symbol, Ritual, and Commu-
10