Antarctic Soils and Soil Forming Processes

184 Pages·1966·5.513 MB·English

ANTARCTIC
RESEARCH
SERIES
AmericanG eophysicaUl nion
ANTARCTIC
RESEARCH
SERIES
American Geophysical Union
Volume 1
BIOLOGY OF THE ANTARCTIC SEAS
Milton O. Lee, Editor
Volume 2
ANTARCTIC SNOgV AND ICE STUDIES
Malcom Melior, Editor
Volume 3
POLYCHAETA ERRANTIA OF ANTARCTICA
OlgaH artman
Volume 4
A. H. Waynick,E ditor
Volume 5
BIOLOGY OF THE ANTARCTIC SEAS II
GeorgeA . Llano,E ditor
Volume 6
GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY OF THE ANTARCTIC
JarvisB . Hadley,E ditor
Volume 7
POLYCHAETA MYZOSTOMIDAE AND SEDENTAnIA OF ANTARCTICA
OlgaH artman
Volume 8
ANTARCTIC SOILS AND SOIL FORMING PROCESSES
J. C. F. Tedrow,E ditor
Antarctic Soils and
Soil Forming Processes
ANTARCTIC
Volume 8 RESEARCH
SERIES
Antarctic Soils and
Soil FormingP rocesses
J. C. F. Tedrow, Editor
Publishedw ith the aid o/a grant/rom the NationalS cienceF oundation
PUBLISHER
AMERICAN GEOPHYSICAL UNION
OF THE
National Academy of Sciences(cid:127)National Research Council
Publication No. 1418
1966
ANTARCTIC
Volume 8 RESEARCH
SERIES
ANTARCTIC SOILS AND SOIL FORMING PROCESSES
J. C. F. Tedrow, Editor
Copyright @ 1966 by the American Geophysical Union
Suite 506, 1145 Nineteenth Street, N. W.
Washington, D.C. 20036
Library of Congress Catalogue Card No. 66-61849
List Price, $10.00
Printed by
The William Byrd Press, Inc.
Richmond, Virginia
THE ANTARCTIC RESEARCH SERIES
During the International GeophysicalY ear discussionsw ere held amongg eophysi-
cists, biologists,a nd geologistsa imed at developinga medium for the publication
of the papers resulting from the intensive researchw ork being done in Antarctica.
The Antarctic Research Series is designed to provide this medium, presenting
authoritative work with uniformly high scientific and editorial standards from
leading scientists engaged in antarctic research.
In a senset he series continues a tradition dating from the earliest days of
geographic exploration and scientific expeditionsrathe tradition of the expedi-
tionary volumes which set forth in rich detail everything that was seen and
studied. But in much of the present antarctic work o-hee xpedition blends into
the next, and it is no longer scientifically meaningful to separatet hem. However,
antarctic research in all disciplinesh as a large degree of coherencea nd deserves
the modern counterpart of the expeditionary volumes of past decadesa nd cen-
turies.
Papers appearing in the seriesr epresent original contributions too lengthy or
otherwise unsuitable for publication in the standard scientific journals. The
material publishedi s directed not only to scientistsa ctively engagedi n the work
but to graduate studentsa nd scientistsi n closelyr elated fields as well. The series
will serve as a sourceo f information both for the specialist and for the layman
versed in the biological and physical sciences.M any of the early volumes are
cohesive collections of research papers grouped around a central theme. An
editor for each book is drawn from the discipline it represents,a s are the re-
viewers on whom each editor relies.
Early in 1963 the National ScienceF oundation made a grant to the American
Geophysical Union to initiate the series, and a Board of Associate Editors was
appointed to implement it. To represent.t he broad nature of the series, the
members of the Board were chosenf rom all fields of antarctic research. They
include Jarvis Hadley, representingg eology and solid Earth geophysics;H arry
W. Wells, aeronomya nd geomagnetismA; . P. Crary, seisinologya nd glaciology;
George A. Llano, botany and zoology; Waldo L. Schmitt, marine biology and
oceanography;a nd Morton J. Rubin, meteorolgy.A GU staff membersr esponsible
for the series are Judith S. McCombs, managing editor, and Marie L. Webner,
style editor.
H(cid:127)¾ W. WELLS
Chairman, Board o/ Associate Editors
A(cid:127)tarctic Resetarch Series
Antarctic Research Series Antarctic Soils and Soil Forming Processes Vol. 8
PREFACE
Are there, in fact, any soil> in Antarctica? This is the question asked by laymen
and professionals alike.
It is seventy years or more since man first set foot on the antarctic continent,
and during this time explorers, naturalists, geologists, and others have given us
considerable inforination on many ice-free areas and have photographed and
mapped a considerable portion of the continent. Only within the last ten years,
ho~vever,h ave the first systematic pedologic studies been undertaken. Although
the observations of these preliminary studies are important and illuminating,
knowledge of pedologic processes as a whole on the antarctic continent has not
advanced much beyond a 'statement of the problem.'
One fascinating aspect of the problem of antarctic pedology is that in most
of Antarctica's ice-free areas the processes are taking place in a system that
lacks an effective organic component. Pedologists rightfully place a great deal
of emphasis on the organic component of soil. When, late in the nineteenth
century, pedology was recognized as an independent scientific discipline, it was
generally agreed that the prime soil forming factors were: parent material, relief,
climate, biotic elements, and time. In most climatic regions, except those frigid
ones of the extreme southern latitudes, the importance of these factors has been
clearly stated, and these statements have stood the test of time.
The question, then, seems to be: When there is virtually no organic matter
present in the mineral substrata, can any of the surficial materials justifiably
be called soils? To refer to certain virtually organic-free deposits as genetic soils
is bending the spirit of the original definition of the term soil. On our willingness
to do this will largely hinge the decision of whether or not we will recognize
as genetic soils those materials in much of the ice-free areas of Antarctica that
lack an effective organic component but otherwise appear to manifest some kind
of a soil forming process.
Regardless of the eventual decision on definition, in Antarctica formidable
and challenging tasks that should not be postponed or avoided simply because
of a preponderance of ahumic conditions await the attention of the pedologist.
Just as on the antarctic continent, geochemistry is being studied, the pursuit of
investigations concerning chemical, physical, and mineral alteration and trans-
location within the surficial layers should continue.
That attempts at soil classification have traditionally failed to provide for
conditions on the antarctic continent is of special interest. As a rule, global soil
maps extend only to circa 60°S, which excludes, of course, all of Antarctica. This
omission was understandable when, in earlier times, very little information about
the continent mas available, but in the light of contemporary knowledge it repre-
sents an omission that should be rectified.
To depict pedologic and related environmental conditions of the ice-free
portions of Antarctica, it is logical to discuss the various facets of the environ-
ment as they affect the soil system. Accordingly, in the separate papers of this
monograph the factors of soil formation are discussed by veteran polar investi-
gators. These papers are not merely discussions of theory but reflect, primarily,
Copyright American Geophysical Union
Antarctic Research Series Antarctic Soils and Soil Forming Processes Vol. 8
actual fi~ldo l)servations coupled 1vit1l cxperiencc in 1)cclology and cognatc dis-
ciplines.
The contribution by R. L. Nicliols on 'Ce0111orl111ology of Ant:ircticaJ not
only suriirnarizcs n~ucho f tlie gco~norl)hlogyo f thc continent but also takes into
:~ccounts urficial geology ant1 glaciology. Kicliols' report c1cscrit)es in some detail
terrain feature3 at various locations on tllc antarctic continent.
Among other sul)j(~tsI,\ '. S. M'cyant, in 'Tlir Antarctic Clin~ate,'t lcl)icts
various clirllatic cwntlitions such as prccil)itntion, l~uiiiidity,i ce inventory, rndia-
t:on, ant1 :ilk)eclo of Ant~~rcticBa.y rccluc3st,1 Vcy:int ulho includes soil tc~inpc~raturea
and re1:itetl data, niatters of interest to pctlologists.
ITntler tlic title 'Prelnuinary RI(~a+uremenotf~ (:ro~vtli ant1 Sonsorted Poly-
gons, Vicstoria l,and, Antarctic:l,' T. E Berg :tnd K. F. Black prc~>cnat, coniprcX-
hcmsive ~,cporto n l)nttc,rned grountl ant1 the cryotlynalnics of the ice-frce arc:^::
of Antarctica. Bvrg ant1 B1:tck not only point out frobt proce.isc,s per sc but also
take into consitleration pattcrnc,tl gro~indf orn~ationin connection ~vitlrQ uatern:wy
liistory.
Tllc biotic (3lcilients of the :intarctic c.ontintmt (clxclutling illnrint~)a re dis-
clisscd in tno rcpo~ta,o 11c hy E 1) Kudoll,ll. ontitlctl 'Terrcstr1:il Vvgctation of
Antarctica: l':~st, :inti Prcicmt S111t11(,\,' ant1 tlic other hy JY. 1,. Boyd, J. T.
St:il(,y, ancl .J. I\' ISoytl, c~ntitl(,tl' Jhlogy of Soil 3licl~oorg:ini~nor.f Antarctica.'
The organic colnponent of Ant:ircbtic.a is 5c.t fort11 in tliclse two I):q)crs. Rutlolpl~
gives an account of 1)liint life on tllc, c20ntincmt :mtl its role in tllcl soil systc~n,
and Roytl, St:tlcy, and Boyd arc concscrned nitli the iclcmtification :lntl func~tions
of iiiicroorganisnls ~vithint he soil
Tlic,sc fivc papers constitute n rol)ort on tlicl I)nckground for boll cievc~loprnent.
A sixth l)apcr, 'Antarctic Soils,' by Tetlro~va nd lTgolini, is concernctl \vitli t1.i~
broad aspects of soil clevclopmcnt on tlic continent.
'l'l~e ~nonogral)li is not iiitcndccj to he a final report I)ut r:ithcr, in its
rcflcction of current knowletlge of thc subjcct, to pl:tce ant:trctic 1)etiology in
realistic perspective. It is hoped tli:~t tlie conll)incd report will serve :is a, cat:tlyst
for future investigations.
Tllc ahlc assistance of Ruth h1. Field, copy ctlitor, ~vlio1 )rcparc~tlt lic nlanu-
scripts for ~)ubllcation,i s gratefully :~cknowledged.
Copyright American Geophysical Union
CONTENTS
The Antarctic Research Series
Harry W. Wells . . . ......... vii
Preface
J. C. F. Tedrow ......
Geomorphology of Antarctica
Robert L. Nichols . . ß . . 1
The Antarctic Climate
William S. Weyant .
Preliminary Measurements of Growth of Nonsorted Polygons,
Victoria Land, Antarctica
Thomas E. Berg and Robert F. Black ....
Terrestrial Vegetation of Antarctica: Past and Present Studies
Emanuel D. Rudolph .............. 109
Ecology of Soil Microorganismso f Antarctica
William L. Boyd, James T. Staley, and JosephineW . Boyd ..... 125
Antarctic Soils
J. C. F. Tedrow and F. C. Ugolini ............. 161
Antarctic Research Series Antarctic Soils and Soil Forming Processes Vol. 8
GEOMORPHOLOGY OF ANTARCTICA
ROBERT L. NICHOLS
Department of Geology,T ufts U(cid:127)iversity, ]liedford, Massachusetts
Abstract. The Kukri Peneplain, located in part in south Victoria Land, is Lower Paleozoic
or older and has been traced for over a thousand miles. Although a Permocarboniferous
tillite containing striated fragments and resting on a glaciated pavement is found in the
Itorlick Mountains, there is no good evidence for Tertiary antarctic glaciation. The summit
of the Antarctic Peninsula, a snow-covered plateau, is a differentially uplifted, dissected
peneplain. The major features of the bedrock topography for much of Antarctica are the
result of late Cenozoic block-faulting modified by glacial and fluvial erosion. Throughout
Antarctica volcanic landforms are widespread and numerous. Glacial marine sediments com-
pletely surround the continent, covering not only the continental shelf but also the slope
:(cid:127)nd adjacent ocean bottoms. The antarctic continental shelf, the deepest in the world, is charac-
terized by both transverse depressions,d ue to glacial erosion, and longitudinal depressions,
which may be due, in part, to glacial erosion. Multiple glaciation in the McMurdo Sound
area has been demonstrated by several workers. Interglacial deposits have also been identi-
fied. D(cid:127)ta from the first expedition to winter in the Antarctic, which were subsequently
substantiated, prove that formerly the glaciers of Antarctica were more extensive. Elevated
beaches, found on all sides of the continent, in general postdate the youngest glaciation.
The highest are more than a hundred feet above sea level, their elevation being due to
isostatic rebound following deglaciation. Some are pitted, owing to the melting of the ice
on which they rest. Dry kettles and small saline lakes, surface and subsurface efttorescences
of salts, calcite-veneered fragments, and undrained lakes that have very small areas in
comparison to their basins, all prove that the deglaciated valleys and coastal areas around
McMurdo Sound have been arid for thousands of years. Felsenmeers, nivation cirques, and
solifiuction deposits are found in the McMurdo Sound area, and frost-crack polygons are
common and widely distributed. A careful study of a badly weathered fine-grained quartz
diorite found at Marble Point, McMurdo Sound, showed that the breakup was due essen-
tially to physical rather than chemical changes. Ice-cored moraines thousands of years old
and covering scores of square miles are found in the McMurdo Sound area. Where the
morMnM topography is fiat and the ice thus effectively and continuously covered with
moraine, the ice-cored moraines will persist as long as present-day conditions continue, for the
mean annual temperature is belo,w 0øF. Fans, deltas, kames, valley trains, marginal channels,
and nonpaired terraces, all formed by melt water, occur. Ventifacts are unusually well de-
veloped and numerous in the McMurdo Sound area. More than I foot of rock has commonly
been removed from the larger ventifacts, and in a 3-foot-square area 53 ventifacts 1-5 inches
long were counted. Since the mean annual air temperature at sea level in the McMurdo Sound
area, as determined from bedrock, glacier, and air temperatures and from sea-ice thickness,
is approximately --2øF, perennially frozen lakes are present.
KUKRI PENEPLAIN Cambrian basemen[ rocks of sou[h Victoria Land
[Goldich et al., 1958] and is overlain by [he Beacon
The oldes(cid:127) antarctic erosion surface known (cid:127)o the Sands[one, a[ leas[ as old as (cid:127)he Devonian, the
writer is 6he Kukri Peneplain. I6 was firs6 described Kukri Peneplain is Early Paleozoic. I[ is afta[ or
by Ferrar [1907] from (cid:127)he Kukri Hills, McMurdo genf(cid:127)lyu ndulating surface [Zeller et al., 1961], was
Sound,V ictoria Land, was la6er s(cid:127)udiedb y Deben- filled during [he Victoria Orogeny, and has been
ham [1921b], and has more recen61yb een investi- (cid:127)raced from the Horlick Mountains [o Terra Nova
gated, described,a nd named by Gunn and Warren Bay for over a [housand miles. A doleri(cid:127)e sill is
[1962]. Since (cid:127)his surface cu6s(cid:127) he Precambrian or commonly presen(cid:127) be[ween [he peneplain and [he
Copyright American Geophysical Union