Annotated Atlas of Coastal and Marine Winds PDF
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Annotated Atlas of Coastal and Marine Winds Thispageintentionallyleftblank Annotated Atlas of Coastal and Marine Winds Nazla Bushra Department of Oceanography and Coastal Sciences, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, United States Robert V. Rohli Department of Oceanography and Coastal Sciences, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, United States Elsevier Radarweg29,POBox211,1000AEAmsterdam,Netherlands TheBoulevard,LangfordLane,Kidlington,OxfordOX51GB,UnitedKingdom 50HampshireStreet,5thFloor,Cambridge,MA02139,UnitedStates Copyright©2021ElsevierInc.Allrightsreserved. Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproducedortransmittedinanyformorbyanymeans,electronicormechanical,including photocopying,recording,oranyinformationstorageandretrievalsystem,withoutpermissioninwritingfromthepublisher. Detailsonhowtoseekpermission,furtherinformationaboutthePublisher’spermissionspoliciesandourarrangementswith organizationssuchastheCopyrightClearanceCenterandtheCopyrightLicensingAgency,canbefoundatourwebsite:www. elsevier.com/permissions. ThisbookandtheindividualcontributionscontainedinitareprotectedundercopyrightbythePublisher(otherthanasmaybe notedherein). Notices Knowledgeandbestpracticeinthisfieldareconstantlychanging.Asnewresearchandexperiencebroadenourunderstanding, changesinresearchmethods,professionalpractices,ormedicaltreatmentmaybecomenecessary. Practitionersandresearchersmustalwaysrelyontheirownexperienceandknowledgeinevaluatingandusinganyinformation, methods,compounds,orexperimentsdescribedherein.Inusingsuchinformationormethodstheyshouldbemindfuloftheir ownsafetyandthesafetyofothers,includingpartiesforwhomtheyhaveaprofessionalresponsibility. Tothefullestextentofthelaw,neitherthePublishernortheauthors,contributors,oreditors,assumeanyliabilityforanyinjury and/ordamagetopersonsorpropertyasamatterofproductsliability,negligenceorotherwise,orfromanyuseoroperationof anymethods,products,instructions,orideascontainedinthematerialherein. BritishLibraryCataloguing-in-PublicationData AcataloguerecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData AcatalogrecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheLibraryofCongress ISBN:978-0-12-820061-2 ForInformationonallElsevierpublications visitourwebsiteathttps://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals Publisher:CandiceJanco AcquisitionsEditor:LouisaMunro EditorialProjectManager:SamanthaAllard ProductionProjectManager:PremKumarKaliamoorthi CoverDesigner:AlanStudholme TypesetbyMPSLimited,Chennai,India Contents Acknowledgments vii 3. The role of atmospheric humidity in global winds 49 1. Introduction 1 4. Diurnal wind patterns 75 5. Tracks of severe coastal and 2. Monthly wind patterns 17 marine tropical cyclones 127 Oceancirculation 44 Monsooncirculations 47 Index 155 v Thispageintentionallyleftblank Acknowledgments The authors express their gratitude to their partners and colleagues at Elsevier, particularly Ali Afzal-Khan, Samantha Allard, Prem Kumar Kaliamoorthi, Louisa Munro, Unni Kannan Ramu, and the rest of the editorial team for sharing theirtalents,confidence,patience,andresourcesthroughthisenjoyableproject.Theconstructivecommentsandsugges- tions from three anonymous reviewers are also most appreciated. The authors also thank their families and the Department of Oceanography & Coastal Sciences and College of the Coast & Environment at Louisiana State Universityfortheoverwhelmingsupportandencouragementduringthisprojectandbeyond. vii Thispageintentionallyleftblank Chapter 1 Introduction The Earth’s surface temperature To an unappreciative observer, the world’s five oceans—the Arctic, Atlantic, Indian, Pacific, and Southern oceans (Fig. 1.1)—may look similar on the surface. But upon further reflection, everyone should agree that they, and thelocalnamesforvariousinletsandsectionsoftheoceans(showninredinFig.1.1),aretrulyremarkable,uniqueplaces. The wide array of life and complicated ecosystems and food webs that the oceans and their inlets support is depen- dent on energy from the Sun. One important representation of that energy received from the Sun is the temperature. Therefore, before we can understand the oceans, it is important to understand how the Sun’s radiation, manifested as temperature,isreceivedthroughouttheyear. The geometry of the Earth’s position relative to the Sun causes the tropical parts of the Earth to experience the Sun at a nearly overhead position near noon, throughout the year, even as Earth orbits the Sun. When the Sun is overhead or nearly overhead,ithasgreatcapacitytowarmthesurface,becauseitsradiantenergyarrivesinanearperpendicularpathtothesur- face. Atthe Equator(the imaginary east-west-running line dividing the Earth in half) itself, the Earth(cid:1)Sun geometry means that every single day, there are 12hours of daylight and 12hours of darkness. This consistency in the number of daylight hoursthroughouttheyear,whichisrelatedtothehighSunanglethroughouttheyear,causestheequatorialregionstoremain warmyear-round. By contrast, the Earth(cid:1)Sun geometry cause the polar parts of the Earth to experience the Sun at a much more overhead angleduringpartoftheyear(summer)thantheoppositepart(winter).Thiscausessummerstobewarmerthanwinters.Infact, thedifferenceinSunanglethroughouttheyearincreaseswithdistancefromtheEquator,whichisdefinedas0degreelatitude, totheNorthorSouthPole,whichlieat90degreeslatitudeNorthorSouth(oftheEquator),respectively.At66.5degreeslati- tude (the Arctic Circle in the Northern Hemisphere and the Antarctic Circle in the Southern Hemisphere), even the noonday Sunshinesonlybelowthehorizonon1dayperyearthefirstdayofwinter—thewintersolstice,whichoccursintheNorthern Hemisphere on December 21 or 22 (depending on how the calendar falls on that year). In other words, at the Arctic and Antarctic Circles, there is no daylight at all on at least 1 day of the year; it remains dark for 24 consecutive hours. And pole- wardoftheArcticandAntarcticCircles,thenumberofconsecutivecalendardaysthatremaindarkincreasesfromoneat66.5 degrees North or South latitude to 6 months at the North and South Poles. But only one of the two hemispheres (Northern or Southern)receivesthelengthyperiodofdarknessatatime. Likewise, at the Arctic and Antarctic Circles, the Sun never goes below the horizon—even at midnight—on 1 day per year—the first day of summer—the summer solstice, or June 21 or 22 in the Northern Hemisphere. Southern Hemisphere residents refer to December 21 or 22 as the summer solstice and June 21 or 22 as the winter solstice. At latitudes increas- inglypolewardoftheArcticandAntarcticCircles,thelengthoftimebetweensunrisesinthewinterpartoftheyearandsun- sets in the summer part of the year expands successively from 24hours at the Arctic and Antarctic Circles, to 6 months at theNorthandSouthPoles.NeveracceptajobinthepolarpartsoftheEarthforwhichyouarepaidbytheday! The abundant solar radiation receipt in the latitudes near the Equator—known as the “low latitudes” or the Tropics— provides even more radiant energy than is lost from the emission of radiation by the surface and atmosphere upward toward space.Thisgeneratesasurplusofsolarradiationintropicallatitudes.AslatitudeincreasesfromtheEquator,theseasonaldiffer- ences in Sun angle, number of daylight hours, and therefore solar radiation receipt, increase. On the whole, the net radiation receiptdecreases poleward,primarilyduetoreduced incoming solarradiation relativetotheoutgoingradiation emitted bythe Earth and its atmosphere, particularly in the winter months. Somewhere around 38 degrees of latitude, the net radiation AnnotatedAtlasofCoastalandMarineWinds.DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-820061-2.00001-8 ©2021ElsevierInc.Allrightsreserved. 1
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