animal nutrition handbook

552 Pages·2012·14.94 MB·English

A N
A N
NIMAL UTRITION
H
H
ANDBOOK
Second Revision
Copyright ±C 2009 by Lee I. Chiba
All rights reserved.
Permission is granted to photocopy this handbook for personal use
with an appropriate acknowledgment of the author.
K This handbook has not been proofread thoroughly, so . . . !?
Contents
Section 1: Introduction................ 1 - 27 Liver and Pancreas ..................... 45
Gastrointestinal Hormones ............... 49
Introduction ........................... 1 The pH and Digestive Process ............ 51
Nutrient Requirements .................. 3 Digestive Enzyme Activities in Pigs ........ 52
Digestion and(or) Metabolism Study ....... 10 Food for Thought ...................... 54
Minerals in General .................... 12
Vitamins in General .................... 22 Section 3: Rumen Microbiology and
Fermentation .................... 55 - 79
Section 2: Digestive Physiology ........ 28 - 54
Introduction .......................... 55
Introduction .......................... 28 Microbiology of the Rumen .............. 56
From Feed Detection to Esophagus ........ 30 Ruminal Fermentation in General ......... 68
Stomach ............................. 37 Microbial Fermentation ................. 69
Intestinal System ...................... 41 Changes in Ruminal Function ............ 71
i
Fate of the End Products of Fermentation .... 73 Transamination and Deamination ........ 179
Gastric Digestion in the Young Ruminants .. 76 Vitamin B .......................... 180
6
D-Isomers, "-Keto and "-Hydroxy Analogs . 182
Section 4: Water and Electrolytes Excretion of Nitrogen .................. 183
(& Iodine) ....................... 80 - 99 Special Functions of Amino Acids ........ 184
Folacin, Vitamin B and Cobalt (& Sulfur) . 185
12
Water ............................... 80 Essentiality of Amino Acids ............. 191
Electrolytes in General .................. 87 Amino Acid Disproportion .............. 193
Sodium and Chlorine (Salt) .............. 88 Protein Quality....................... 195
Potassium............................ 91 Protein and(or) Amino Acid Requirements.. 198
Iodine .............................. 93 Ideal Protein ........................ 205
Electrolyte Balance .................... 94 Amino Acids and Energy ............... 208
Electrolytes and Iodine for Fish ........... 97 Amino Acids and Environment .......... 210
Gender/Type of Animals and Amino Acid
Section 5: Carbohydrates .......... 100 - 116 Requirements (e.g., Pigs) ............. 211
Repartitioning Agents and Amino Acids ... 212
Introduction ......................... 100 Crystalline Amino Acids ............... 213
Nutritionally Important Sugars/CHO...... 101
2
Digestion ........................... 105 Section 8: Energy Metabolism and Vitamins/
Absorption .......................... 108 Mineral ....................... 215 - 241
Metabolism ......................... 109
Dietary Fiber ........................ 113 Energy Systems ...................... 215
Palatability.......................... 116 Energy Requirement .................. 218
Growing Animals and Energy (e.g., Pigs) .. 222
Section 6: Lipid Metabolism and Vitamins/ Breeding Animals and Energy (e.g., Swine) . 224
Mineral ....................... 117 - 158 Thiamin (Vitamin B) ................. 226
1
Riboflavin (Vitamin B) ................ 228
2
Introduction ......................... 117 Niacin ............................. 231
Essential Fatty Acids .................. 118 Pantothenic Acid ..................... 233
Fatty Acids and Human Health........... 122 Biotin .............................. 234
Digestion and Absorption ............... 124 Chromium .......................... 237
Metabolism ......................... 126
Brown Adipose Tissue ................. 128 Section 9: Bone and Vitamins/
Vitamin E and Selenium Interrelationships . 129 Minerals ...................... 242 - 274
Vitamin E .......................... 131
Vitamin E and Human Health ........... 134 Bone in General ...................... 242
Selenium ........................... 136 Calcium and Phosphorus ............... 246
Choline ............................ 141 Other Minerals in Bone Physiology ....... 255
Supplemental Dietary Lipids ........... 145 Magnesium ......................... 255
Feed Grade Lipids .................... 155 Manganese.......................... 257
Zinc ............................... 259
Section 7: Protein Metabolism and Vitamins/ Fluorine ............................ 262
Minerals ...................... 159 - 214 Vitamin D .......................... 263
Vitamin A .......................... 267
Protein in General .................... 159 Vitamin C .......................... 271
Protein and Amino Acids ............... 161
Protein Digestion ..................... 165 Section 10: Circulation and Vitamin/
Absorption of Amino Acids and Peptides ... 172 Minerals ...................... 275 - 284
Protein Metabolism in General ........... 175
Protein Synthesis and Turnover .......... 176 Vitamin K .......................... 275
Amino Acid as a Source of Energy........ 178 Iron ............................... 277
ii
Copper ............................. 281 Section 15: Dairy Cattle Nutrition
and Feeding ................... 392 - 425
Section 11: Pig Nutrition and Feeding . 285 - 315 Feeding Dairy Calves .................. 392
Feeding Heifers, Bulls, and Dairy Beef..... 395
Replacement Boars and Gilts ............ 285 Feeding for Milk Production ............ 397
Boars and Sows at Breeding ............. 287 Nutrient Requirement Tables (Non-lactating) 406
Gestating sows/Gilts................... 288 Nutrient Requirement Tables (Lactating) ... 416
Lactating Sows....................... 291
Suckling Baby Pigs ................... 294 Section 16: Sheep Nutrition
Baby Pigs ........................... 296 and Feeding ................... 426 - 446
Feeder Pigs ......................... 300
Grower-Finisher Pigs .................. 301 Introduction ......................... 426
Nutrient Requirement Tables ............ 309 Feeding Ewes ........................ 428
Feeding Very Young Lambs ............. 432
Section 12: Poultry Nutrition Feeding Growing and Finishing Lambs .... 434
and Feeding ................... 316 - 331 Potential Nutritional Problems ........... 438
Feeding Replacement Ewes and Rams ..... 439
Introduction ......................... 316 Urea and Feed Additives & Implants ...... 441
Poultry Diets in General ................ 316 Nutrient Requirement Tables ............ 442
Energy and Nutrients for Poultry ......... 317
Various Poultry Diets .................. 320 Section 17: Fish, Dog, and Cat Nutrition
Major Ingredients for Poultry Diets ....... 321 and Feeding ................... 447 - 480
Feeding Programs .................... 323
Nutrient Requirement Tables ............ 326 Fish Diet Formulation and Processing ..... 447
Fish Feeding Practices ................. 453
Section 13: Horse Nutrition Nutrition of Dogs and Cats in General ..... 461
and Feeding ................... 332 - 359 Nutrient Requirements of Dogs and Cats ... 462
Commercial Pet Foods and Table Scraps ... 466
Introduction ......................... 332 Feeding of Dogs and Cats............... 469
Nutrient Requirements ................. 333 Pet Food Labels ...................... 475
Feed Ingredients and Feeds ............. 337 Nutrient Requirement Table for Fish and
Feeding Horses....................... 341 Dog & Cat Food Profile Tables ......... 478
Nutritional Related Problems and
Feeding Management ................ 345 Section 18: Diet Formulation and Common
Nutrient Requirement Tables ............ 348 Feed Ingredients ................ 481 - 531
Section 14: Beef Cattle Nutrition As-Fed, Dry Matter, or Air-Dry Basis ..... 481
and Feeding ................... 360 - 391 Simple Diet Formulation Techniques ...... 483
A Complete Diet, Supplement,
Beef Breeding Herd ................... 360 and Base mix ...................... 486
Management of Calves ................. 364 Feed Ingredients in General ............. 492
Heifer Development and Managing Bulls ... 366 Brief Description of Some Common
Grazing Management.................. 367 Feed Ingredients .................... 497
Beef Cattle Types and Growth ........... 369 Feed Additives ....................... 502
Systems for Growing and Finishing Analysis of Feed Ingredients and Diets..... 506
Beef Cattle ........................ 371 Processing of Feed Ingredients
Managing Newly Received Cattle......... 374 and(or) Diets ...................... 511
Starting Cattle on Feed & Feed Bunk Composition of Common Feed Ingredients .. 515
Management....................... 376
Finishing Diets for Market Cattle ......... 378 Section 19: Glossary ............... 532 - 542
Nutrient Requirement Tables ............ 384
Section 20: Major References ....... 543 - 548
iii
A Tribute to the Stockman
Behold the Stockman!
Artist and Artisan, he may be polished,
or a diamond in the rough . . .
but always a Gem.
Whose devotion to his animals is
second only to his love of God and family,
whose gripping affection is
tempered only by his inborn sense of
the true proportion of things,
who cheerfully braves
personal discomfort to make sure
his live stock suffer not!
To him,
there is rhythm in the clatter of the horse’s hoof,
music in the bleating of the sheep and the lowing of the herd.
His approaching footsteps call forth the whinny of recognition.
His calm, well-modulated voice
inspires confidence and wins affection.
His coming is greeted with demonstrations of pleasure,
and his going with evident disappointment.
Who sees something more in cows than the drudgery of milking,
more in swine than the grunt and squeal,
more in the horse than the patient servant,
and more in sheep than the golden hoof.
Herdsman, shepherd, groom . . . yes, and more!
Broad-minded, big-hearted, whole-souled;
whose life and character linger long after the cordial greeting
is stilled and the hearty handshake is but a memory;
whose silent influence forever lives.
May his kind multiply and replenish the earth!
(Herbert W. Sanford & Unknown Cartoonist)
iv
Animal Nutrition Handbook Section 1: Introduction Page 1
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
1. Nutrition
A. Definition?
B To (cid:147)Nourish!(cid:148)
B (cid:147)Means all the processes whereby food & oxygen are presented to & utilized by
living cells, and waste products are eliminated!(cid:148)
B. (cid:147)The great French chemist Antoine Lavoisier (1743-1794) is frequently referred to as
the founder of the science of nutrition. He established the chemical basis of nutrition
in his famous respiration experiment carried our before the French Revolution. His
studies led him to state (cid:145)La vie est une fonction chimique (life is a chemical process)!(cid:146)
Thereafter, chemistry became an important tool in nutrition studies.(cid:148) (Maynard et al.,
1979)
C. Steps?
B (cid:147)Procurement(cid:148) Ingestion Digestion Absorption Assimilation Metabolic
| | | | |
functions & resulting metabolites (cid:147)Excretion!(cid:148)
|
D. Nutrients:
1) Six basic nutrients:
a) Water - Often overlooked and not considered as a nutrient when formulating
diets for animals, but extremely important.
b) Carbohydrates - Definition? Hydrates of carbon formed by combining CO &
2
H O (photosynthesis). The primary component found in animal feeds.
2
c) Protein - Found in the highest concentration of any nutrient (except water) in
all living organisms and animals. All cells synthesize proteins, and life could
not exist without protein synthesis.
d) Lipids - Organic compounds that are characterized by the fact that they are
insoluble in water, but soluble in organic solvent (benzene, ether, etc.)
e) Minerals - Inorganic, solid, crystalline chemical elements that cannot be
decomposed or synthesized by chemical reactions.
f) Vitamins - Organic substances that are required by animal tissues in very small
amounts. The last group of dietary essentials to be recognized.
2) Indispensable nutrients:
Copyright ' 2009 by Lee I. Chiba
Animal Nutrition Handbook Section 1: Introduction Page 2
< Those cannot be synthesized in the body from other substances, or those
cannot be synthesized fast enough to meet its needs.
< Thus, must be supplied from the diet!
3) Dispensable nutrients:
< Those can be synthesized from other substances in sufficient quantity to meet
its needs.
< But, still very important!
4) Use of the term, (cid:147)Essential or Non-Essential Nutrient(cid:148) for amino acids, minerals,
and vitamins?
< May not be appropriate terminology for some nutrients - e.g., amino acids!
< Including the word (cid:147)dietary,(cid:148) thus, (cid:147)dietary essential or non-essential(cid:148)
nutrient?
2. Nutritional Guidelines
A. Requirements - Statement by Braude (1978. Proc. Annu. Int. Minerals Conf.):
(cid:147). . . Should reexamine the whole concept of requirements for a certain nutrients.
In the past, we have been mainly concerned with crude quantitative aspects - how much?
Subsequently, also with the crude qualitative aspects - of what? and in what form?
Now we have to add, perhaps, the most awkward question - for what?
And, this brings us to the basic disciplines of biochemistry and physiology!(cid:148)
B. Consideration?
1) No longer worried about gross deficiencies or excesses, which can produce clinical
symptoms.
2) Rather, catering for the situation:
a) Deficiency signs may not be severe enough or even absent.
b) But, may impair growth performance, thus could be costly.
K That is, to optimize the performance of animals!
3) Interdependence of mineral elements/vitamins and other nutrients:
a) May occur in the process of digestion, absorption and(or) metabolism.
b) Understandings in these areas can lead to 8 in the rate and efficiency of
growth.
Copyright ' 2009 by Lee I. Chiba
Animal Nutrition Handbook Section 1: Introduction Page 3
4) The form of nutrient & its availability are crucial!
5) Some minerals are becoming scarce and costly (e.g., phosphorus), ˆ avoid generous
margins and wasteful usage! (How about vitamins?)
6) Need to focus attention on a very important, but often ignored nutrient, (cid:147)water!(cid:148)
C Biological dose & response curve: (Adapted & redrawn from Mertz, 1981. Science
213:1332)
NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS
L See Maynard et al. (1979), Swenson and Reece (1993), Kellems and Church (1998) and
other references for details on the (cid:147)maintenance, growth, reproduction, and lactation
requirements.(cid:148)
1. Maintenance
A. Maintenance? - (cid:147)The state in which there is neither gain or loss of a nutrient by the
body.(cid:148) (Maynard et al., 1979)
B. Maintenance requirement:
1) Regardless of the purpose of feeding an animal, a substantial portion of food/feed is
used for supporting vital body processes, which are essential for life.
2) That portion consisted of the amount of needed to keep all the necessary tissues of
an animal intact, which is not growing, working, or yielding any product.
3) This demand for food/feed is referred to as the maintenance requirement, and tissue
breakdown would occur if this demand is not met.
4) A proportion of food/feed used for maintenance would differ depending on a
multitude of factors such as species, age, rate of growth/production, etc.
K For a large segment of human population, the maintenance requirement may consist
of the primary need for food, but this is not true for many farm animals simply
because they are usually fed for productive purposes!
C. Fasting catabolism:
Copyright ' 2009 by Lee I. Chiba
Animal Nutrition Handbook Section 1: Introduction Page 4
1) The animal getting no feed, doing no external work, and yielding any product is still
carrying out vital/essential body processes such as respiration, circulation,
maintenance of muscular activities, production of internal secretions, etc.
2) With no feed, the nutrients needed to support those activities must come form the
breakdown of body tissues, and this is referred to as (cid:147)fasting catabolism.(cid:148)
D. Energy metabolism of fasting - (cid:147)Basal metabolism or basal metabolic rate(cid:148)
1) Energy expended in the fasting animal is represented by the fasting (cid:147)heat
production,(cid:148) and can be measure in the respiration calorimeter (or other method of
indirect calorimetry).
2) Can provide a useful basis of reference for other phases of energy metabolism.
3) By eliminating all the potential factors that may increase heat production, the
minimum energy expenditure compatible with the maintenance of life can be
obtained, and such a minimum value is called (cid:147)basal metabolism or basal metabolic
rate.(cid:148)
4) Heat production is obviously related to body size, and it is commonly accepted (. . .
some variations/deviations though!) that (cid:147)0.75(cid:148) to be the power of body weight
best related to basal metabolism.
5) Basal metabolism per day:
a) (cid:147)Adult homeotherms(cid:148) - May be represented by the general formula (cid:147)BM (kcal)
= 70Wkg0.75, where the coefficient 70 represents an average value for the
kilocalories of basal heat produced per unit of metabolic size in experiments
with groups of adult mammals.(cid:148) (Maynard et al., 1979)
b) Basal metabolism is highest in the newborn and gradually decreases during the
growth period, and there are also some species & intraspecies differences, as
would be expected.
E. (cid:147)Basal metabolism(cid:148) & (cid:147)maintenance requirement?(cid:148)
1) Under practical conditions, an intake of feed energy enough to balance the (cid:147)fasting
metabolism(cid:148) is not an adequate (cid:147)maintenance(cid:148) value.
2) Perhaps, influenced by heat increment from ingested feed, energy to consume feed,
normal activity, group size, body composition, environmental temperatures, etc.
F. Endogenous nitrogen metabolism
1) There is a minimum essential N catabolism associated with the maintenance of the
vital processes of the body.
2) This catabolism is measured as the minimum urinary excretion 0n a N-free. energy
adequate diet, and called (cid:147)endogenous urinary N.(cid:148)
3) Absorbed proteins/amino acids needed for maintenance must offset the endogenous
urinary losses, metabolic fecal losses (associated with the digestion of the diet), and
Copyright ' 2009 by Lee I. Chiba
Animal Nutrition Handbook Section 1: Introduction Page 5
(cid:147)adult growth(cid:148) (. . . refers to the growth and renewal of hair, nails, feathers, and
other epidermal tissues, which continue throughout life).
G. Minerals and vitamins?
1) Active metabolism of minerals continues during fasting, but catabolized minerals
may be re-utilized instead of being excreted. Nevertheless, there is a constant
excretion of mineral elements during fasting.
2) Various vitamins are, obviously, important for maintenance, as well as for
productive purposes, but limited information is available on the vitamin
requirements for maintenance.
2. Growth
A. What is Growth?
(cid:147)Throughout the animate kingdom, from the simplest microorganisms to the most
complexly organized beings, that inexhaustible power of growth which ever since the
genesis of the first protoplasm in the infinite past has created the structure of the fossil
remains of former ages as well as our own existence-this capacity to grow, has
remained as the most remarkable phenomenon of nature, the supreme riddle of life.(cid:148)
(Rubner, M. 1908; Translation - Mendel, L. B. 1917. Am. J. Med. Sci. 153:1-20.)
B. Definition of the term (cid:147)growth(cid:148) by Schloss (1911; Cited by Maynard et al., 1979):
(cid:147)A correlated increase in the mass of the body in definite intervals of time, in a way
characteristics of the species.(cid:148)
1) Has very broad implications - Variability due to individuals, species, and
developmental phase/size.
2) Considered that the maximum size and development are fixed by heredity, and
nutrition is an essential factor determining whether the genetic potential will be
reached.
3) Growth involves:
a) An increase in the structural tissues such as muscle and bone and also in
organs, but should be distinguished from the increase that results from fat
accretion in the reserve tissues.
b) Thus, essentially, growth is characterized primary by an increase in protein,
minerals and water.
(1) Also, various vitamins are required!
(2) A minute amount of lipid goes into the structure of each cell, but this does
not represent a specific dietary requirement (except, essential fatty acids)
because of the synthesis of lipid frm carbohydrates.
Copyright ' 2009 by Lee I. Chiba
Animal Nutrition Handbook Section 1: Introduction Page 6
C. Energy requirements for growth
1) Various nutrients are needed for growth, but the need for energy is by far the
largest & primarily determines the total feed required.
2) The maintenance portion of the total energy need during growth increases with
body size, but the additional need for the growth depends on the rate and the
composition of the tissue being formed.
3) The amount of energy represented by the (cid:147)tissue growth(cid:148) decreases with age, thus
reflecting the declining rate of body increase measured on a percentage basis.
4) The amount of energy stored per (cid:147)unit of body increase(cid:148) becomes larger with age
because of its lower water content & higher fat content.
5) The (cid:147)true growth tissue(cid:148) contains only a trace of fat, but a certain amount of fat
accretion is inevitable consequence of growth. And, in practice, a considerable
amount of fattening is an integral part of growing animals for meat!
D. Protein requirement for growth
1) The theoretical minimum protein requirement for growth is the amount actually
stored in the body, but this is far below the actual requirement because of the
wastage in digestion and metabolism.
a) Digestible protein can be used to taken into account the loss in the digestion.
b) Wastage during the metabolism can be difficult to assess, and it is mostly
determined by the efficiency that digested protein can supply amino acids
needed for body tissue synthesis.
2) Amino acid proportions needed would not change regardless of the rate of growth,
thus an appropriate amino acid balance in the diet is important for efficient and
optimum protein nutrition.
3) At a very slow rate of growth? Proportions needed may differ somewhat because
the needs for maintenance dominate (. . . some differences in amino acid
proportions between the maintenance & growth).
4) Thus, protein quality has some impact on satisfying the amino acids/protein needs
for maintenance & growth, and assessing the protein quality is very important.
5) (cid:147)Wool production?(cid:148) - Differ from muscle growth:
a) Despite a negative N & energy balance, wool growth continues at the expense
of the breakdown of other protein tissues.
b) Wool fiber - Practically pure protein, and has quite different amino acid
patterns vs. muscle (e.g., 10 times Cys vs. muscle protein on % basis).
c) Practical significance - ???
E. Mineral requirements for growth
Copyright ' 2009 by Lee I. Chiba