Animal life

1917 Pages·2002·22.959 MB·English

by  Carl W Hoagstrom

MAGILL’S ENCYCLOPEDIA OF SCIENCE
A N I M A L L I F E
MAGILL’S ENCYCLOPEDIA OF SCIENCE
A N I M A L L I F E
Volume 1
Aardvarks–Endoskeletons
Editor
Carl W. Hoagstrom, Ph.D.
Ohio Northern University
Project Editor
Tracy Irons-Georges
Salem Press, Inc.
Pasadena, California
Hackensack, New Jersey
MAGILL’S ENCYCLOPEDIA OF SCIENCE
A N I M A L L I F E
Volume 2
Estivation–Learning
Editor
Carl W. Hoagstrom, Ph.D.
Ohio Northern University
Project Editor
Tracy Irons-Georges
Salem Press, Inc.
Pasadena, California
Hackensack, New Jersey
MAGILL’S ENCYCLOPEDIA OF SCIENCE
A N I M A L L I F E
Volume 3
Lemurs–Respiration in Birds
Editor
Carl W. Hoagstrom, Ph.D.
Ohio Northern University
Project Editor
Tracy Irons-Georges
Salem Press, Inc.
Pasadena, California
Hackensack, New Jersey
MAGILL’S ENCYCLOPEDIA OF SCIENCE
A N I M A L L I F E
Volume 4
Respiratory System–Zoos
Index
Editor
Carl W. Hoagstrom, Ph.D.
Ohio Northern University
Project Editor
Tracy Irons-Georges
Salem Press, Inc.
Pasadena, California
Hackensack, New Jersey
Editor in Chief: Dawn P. Dawson
Project Editor: Tracy Irons-Georges Photograph Editor: Philip Bader
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Copyright © 2002, by
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whatsoeverortransmittedinanyformorbyanymeans,electronicormechanical,includingphotocopy,
recording,oranyinformationstorageandretrievalsystem,withoutwrittenpermissionfromthecopy-
rightownerexceptinthecaseofbriefquotationsembodiedincriticalarticlesandreviews.Forinformation
address the publisher, Salem Press, Inc., P.O. Box 50062, Pasadena, California 91115.
SomeoftheupdatedandrevisedessaysinthisworkoriginallyappearedinMagill’sSurveyofScience:
LifeScience,editedbyFrankN.Magill(Pasadena,Calif.:SalemPress,Inc.,1991),andinMagill’sSurveyof
Science:LifeScienceSupplement,editedbyLauraL.MaysHoopes(Pasadena,Calif.:SalemPress,Inc.,1998).
¥
ThepaperusedinthesevolumesconformstotheAmericanNationalStandardforPermanenceof
Paper for Printed Library Materials, Z39.48-1992 (R1997).
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Magill’s encyclopedia of science : animal life / editor, Carl W. Hoagstrom.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references (p. ).
ISBN 1-58765-019-3 (set : alk. paper) — ISBN 1-58765-020-7 (v. 1 : alk. paper) —
ISBN 1-58765-021-5 (v. 2 : alk. paper) — ISBN 1-58765-022-3 (v. 3 : alk. paper) —
ISBN 1-58765-023-1 (v. 4 : alk. paper)
1. Zoology—Encyclopedias. I. Hoagstrom, Carl W.
QL7 .M34 2002
590’.3—dc21
2001049799
First Printing
printed in the united states of america
PUBLISHER’S NOTE
Animalshavealwaysbeenasourceoffascina- ant,andquail;Pigsandhogs;andDogs,wolves,and
tionforhumans.Wehavesoughttoexplaintheor- coyotes),andwhilethereareentriesonDomestica-
igin and evolution of life, to classify the planet’s tionandZoos,petsandfarmanimalsarenotdis-
manyorganismsinalogicalmanner,andtostudy cussedassuch.Earlyhumansareaddressedinan
theformsandbehaviorofcreaturesasdiverseas evolutionarycontext,andmodernhumansarein-
jellyfishandelephants.Magill’sEncyclopediaofSci- cluded only for interspecies comparison or for
ence:AnimalLifeoffersaccessible,easy-to-under- their efforts to coexist with other species.
stand scientific information for high-school, un- All entries begin with ready-reference infor-
dergraduate,andgeneral readersonasubjectof mationabouttypeofanimalscienceandfieldsof
significantpopularandacademicinterest.Thisil- study.Nextisalistofprincipalterms,withbrief
lustrated,four-volumeencyclopediarefocusesand definitions. Numerous creative subheads guide
expandsonMagill’sSurveyofScience:LifeScience. thereaderthroughthemaintextoftheentry.Ev-
AnimalLiferevisesandupdates108articlesfrom ery essay ends with an annotated bibliography;
that 1991 set and its 1998 Supplement and then thosereusedfromMagill’sSurveyofSciencehave
adds277newmainentries,aswellasmorethan been updated with recent sources. Species over-
threehundredtextualsidebars,factboxes,andbi- views, at 1,000 or 2,000 words, discuss notable
ographies. Photographs, tables, and maps com- anatomyandphysiology,habitat,behavior(food
plement the text. sources,socialgroups),andreproductionandin-
Animal Life concentrates on science in its dis- cludean“AnimalFacts”sidebarlistingclassifica-
cussion of nonhumans from the kingdom Ani- tion, geographical location, habitat, gestational
malia:invertebrates,insects,arthropods,amphib- period,lifespan,andspecialanatomy.Numerous
ians, reptiles, fish, birds, and mammals. The 385 biographicalentries—onsuchprominentfigures
entries, ranging from 1,000 to 3,000 words each, in the study of the natural world as John James
surveyawiderangeoftopics:anatomy(Antennae, Audubon, Charles Darwin, and Jane Goodall—
Feathers,andTails);behavior(Defensemechanisms, appearas500-wordsidebarswithinmainentries,
Hibernation, and Nesting); classification (Bears, as do some issue-oriented discussions such as
Crustaceans,andMammoths);ecology(Herbivores, habitat destruction and poaching. In addition,
Poisonousanimals,andSymbiosis);evolution(Fos- most longer entries provide one or more brief
sils, Mutations, and Natural selection); fields of sidebarshighlightinginterestingsubjectsrelating
study (Biogeography, Paleontology, and Zoology); to the text.
geography and habitats (Fauna: Australia, Fauna: A complete Alphabetical List of contents ap-
GalápagosIslands,Deserts,andRainforests);physi- pears in the back of all four volumes, as does a
ology (Cold-blooded animals, Reflexes, and Smell); CategoryListusingthefollowingheadings:am-
reproductionanddevelopment(Asexualreproduc- phibians, anatomy, arthropods, behavior, birds,
tion,Lifespans,andMetamorphosis);andscientific carnivores, cell biology, classification, ecology,
methods(BreedingprogramsandPopulationanaly- evolution, fields of study, fish, genetics, geogra-
sis).Theemphasisofthisencyclopediaisonani- phy,habitats,herbivores,humanorigins,insects,
mals in nature; the entries on domestic animals invertebrates,mammals,marinebiology,marsu-
alsocovertheirwildkin(Chickens,turkeys,pheas- pials,omnivores,physiology,populationbiology,
v
Magill’s Encyclopedia of Science: Animal Life
prehistoric animals, primates, reproduction and North America, the Pacific Islands, the Pacific
development, reptiles, and scientific methods. Ocean,andSouthAmerica.TheBiographicalList
Volume4offersmanyusefulappendices.The of Scientists consists of brief profiles of fifty-one
Glossaryprovidesimportanttermswithsuccinct important figures in animal science, past and
definitions.AtableofAnimalTerminologygives present.AGeneralBibliographyoffersannotated
the names applied to the males, females, young, sources,andboththeJournalsandtheOrganiza-
andgroupsofvariousanimals.TheTimeLineisa tionsappendicesprovidecontactandgeneralin-
graphicdepictionoftheevolutionarytreeacross formation. The encyclopedia concludes with a
geological periods. The Classification Table lists comprehensive subject Index.
all phyla, subphyla, superclasses, classes, sub- Thecontributorstothisworkareacademicians
classes, superorders, orders, infraclasses, subor- fromavarietyofdisciplinesinthelifesciences.We
ders,superfamilies,andfamiliesinthekingdom thankthemforgenerouslysharingtheirexpertise;
Animalia.AGeographicalListofAnimalsbreaks theirnamesandaffiliationsarelistedinthefront
species down into various areas: All continents matter to volume 1. Special acknowledgment is
(exceptAntarctica),alloceans,Africa,Antarctica, extendedtotheEditor,CarlW.Hoagstrom,Ph.D.,
the Arctic, Asia, the Atlantic Ocean, Australia, fromOhioNorthernUniversity,forhisinvaluable
the Caribbean, Central America, Europe, the guidance.
GalápagosIslands,Madagascar,theMiddleEast,
vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Contributor List. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix Breeding programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Butterflies and moths. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Aardvarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Adaptations and their mechanisms . . . . . . . 3 Camels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Adaptive radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Camouflage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Aging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Cannibalism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Allosaurus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Carnivores. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Altruism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Cats. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
American pronghorns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Cattle, buffalo, and bison . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Amphibians. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Cell types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Anatomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 Centipedes and millipedes. . . . . . . . . . . 185
Animal kingdom. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Chameleons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
Antelope. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Chaparral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Antennae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 Cheetahs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Ants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 Chickens, turkeys, pheasant, and quail. . . . 197
Apatosaurus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 Chimpanzees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Apes to hominids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Chordates, lower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Arachnids. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 Circulatory systems of invertebrates . . . . . 210
Archaeopteryx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 Circulatory systems of vertebrates . . . . . . 216
Armadillos, anteaters, and sloths. . . . . . . . 71 Clams and oysters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Arthropods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 Claws, nails, and hooves. . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Asexual reproduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 Cleavage, gastrulation, and neurulation . . . 227
Clines, hybrid zones, and introgression . . . 232
Baboons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 Cloning of extinct or endangered
Bats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 species. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
Beaks and bills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 Cockroaches. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Bears. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 Coevolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Beavers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 Cold-blooded animals . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Bees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 Communication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
Beetles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 Communities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Biodiversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 Competition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
Biogeography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 Convergent and divergent evolution. . . . . 271
Biology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 Copulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Bioluminescence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 Coral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
Birds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 Courtship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Birth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 Crabs and lobsters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
Bone and cartilage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 Cranes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
Brachiosaurus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 Crocodiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Brain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 Crustaceans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
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Magill’s Encyclopedia of Science: Animal Life
Death and dying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304 Eagles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
Deep-sea animals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308 Ears. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
Deer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311 Echinoderms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
Defense mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314 Ecological niches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
Demographics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320 Ecology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
Deserts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326 Ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
Determination and differentiation . . . . . . 331 Eels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428
Development: Evolutionary perspective. . . 337 Elephant seals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
Digestion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342 Elephants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
Digestive tract. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348 Elk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
Dinosaurs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354 Embryology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
Diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360 Emotions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
Displays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366 Endangered species. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
Dogs, wolves, and coyotes. . . . . . . . . . . 370 Endocrine systems of invertebrates. . . . . . 456
Dolphins, porpoises, and other Endocrine systems of vertebrates. . . . . . . 461
toothed whales. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375 Endoskeletons. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
Domestication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
Donkeys and mules. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385 Alphabetical List. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III
Ducks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388 Category List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IX
viii