Animal Diversity

442 Pages·1983·26.072 MB·English

by  Diana R. Kershaw (auth.)

Animal Diversity
Diana R. Kershaw
Formerly lecturer in anatomy, St Mary's Hospital Medical School
With illustrations by
Brian Price Thomas
CHAPMAN & HALL
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First published in 1983 by University Tutorial Press Ltd
This edition 1988
Reprinted 1991, 1992
© 1983 D. R. Kershaw
ISBN-13: 978-0-412-53200-9 e-ISBN-13: 978-94-011-6035-3
DOl: 10.1007/978-94-011-6035-3
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To my parents
Preface
This book has been written with two main purposes in mind, page. At the same time animals show immense variation
the first being to give a general review of the entire animal and none is truly typical. Some idea of the immense variety
kingdom, and the second to give more detailed functional of animals is given in the diversity sections, with a synopsis
accounts of the anatomy of a representative of each major of the classification of each major phylum.
animal group. It is intended to be used by those who are Zoology has a language of its own, which appears highly
interested in animals and does not start with the assumption complicated but in most cases can, in fact, be derived simply
of any great zoological knowledge. It is hoped that it will from either Latin or Greek. Translations and derivations
prove particularly helpful to those studying biology or have been given of a selection of zoological terms; these
zoology at 'A' level, or in the early stages of a university should be regarded as examples. The interested zoologist
course. may find the use of a Greek and Latin dictionary rewarding.
Most modern zoological anatomical and physiological Finally, zoology is a subject with a long history stretching
research concentrates on 'bits' of animals. This text is back to the ancient world. In many modern texts the
designed to help the reader to see the animal as a complete important contribution of earlier workers is forgotten in
living being within its environment. For this reason both favour of concentration on more recent achievement. It is
detailed description and illustrations are restricted to a few hoped that sufficient historical background has been given
representative animals and where possible the structure of to remind the reader of the great value of earlier work.
an animal is illustrated by a series of drawings on a single
Diana R. Kershaw
The use of this book
Animal Diversity has been planned to be read in three ways, of the variation within each phylum. These sections are
apart from as a unit, with the intention of providing three intended to be used together to give a more overall look at
text books in one. the animal kingdom. Thirdly, major functions and organ
Firstly, each major phylum includes a detailed description systems are discussed within each section under the same
of one representative. These have been chosen with regard headings and in the same order. Used together, these
to their availability and use in school and university syllabi provide a comparative account of the functional anatomy of
and can be used together or separately to give a full account the animal kingdom.
of a limited number of animals. Secondly, a review is given
Acknowledgements
In the preparation of this book I have benefited from Carthy, G. Causey, G. Chapman, M. Chinery, A. M.
suggestions and ideas from many fellow zoologists, Clark, R. B. Clarke, J. A. Clegg, E. H. Colbert, J. L.
colleagues, and students. Among my colleagues special Corliss, R. P. Dales, C. Darwin, B. Dawes, R. Denison, E.
mention must be made of Drs A. D. Hoyes and R. A. J. Denton, T. Dobzhansky, F. H. Edgeworth, R. Fange, D.
Travers, also Professor A. d'A Bellairs. My students at Fawcett, W. Fisher, E. A. Fraser, W. H. Freeman, V.
Queen Mary College (University of London) helped me to Fretter, K. von Frisch, W. G. Fry, G. Fryer, C. Gans, W.
create the undergraduate courses on which the book was Garstang, R. Gibson, T. Gilson, E. S. Goodrich, A.
based. Some read parts of the book and convinced me it was Graham, P. P. Grasse, H. Gray, J. Gray, J. Green, P. H.
worth continuing to write it; in this context I am particularly Greenwood, W. K. Gregory, A. J. Grove, J. Hadzi, H. J.
grateful to N. M. A. Horn, with J. R. Clague and R. A. Hansen, E. D. Hanson, R. H. Harrison, B. Hatschek, J. W.
Matthews. Hedgepeth, W. N. Hess, G. Huff, L. H. Hyman, A. D.
My husband, Dr P. J. Edwards, read the entire book in Imms, H. Isseroff, A. V. Ivanov, J. B. Jennings, C. John,
manuscript and ensured that the English was M. Jollie, R. P. S. Jefferies, D. Kennedy, G. A. Kerkut, M.
comprehensible, also adding some ecological information. S. Laverack, W. E. LeGros Clark, C. H. Lewis, J. A.
Mrs L. A. Wheatley turned my scrawled handwriting into a Mcleod, K. F. Liem, H. W. Lissman, E. E. Lund, K. H.
tidy typescript. Brian Price-Thomas drew the illustrations Mann, S. M. Manton, A. J. Marshall, N. B. Marshall, L. H.
and went to great pains to find adequate source material to Matthews, E. Mayr, P. A. Meglitsch, E. Meyer, R. S.
this end, and Mrs A. L. Price Thomas and the Zoology Miles, H. M. Miller, J. E. Morton, J. A. Moy-Thomas, O.
Department of Westfield College provided innumerable Nelsen, T. C. Nelson, G. Newell, P. F. Newell, D. Nichols,
specimens and references. G. K. Noble, R. T. Orr, R. Owen, T. S. Parsons, W. P.
I should like to thank the staff of University Tutorial Pycraft, W. J. Rees, F. S. Russell, W. D. Russell-Hunter,
Press, particularly C. J. Baker, who encouraged me to write O. W. Richards, A. S. Romer, K. Schmidt Nielsen, A.
the book, and Anne Hollifield and David Blogg for endless Sedgewick, G. C. Simpson, M. A. Sleigh, J. E. Smith, J. C.
help in its editorial and artwork aspects. Smyth, R. E. Snodgrass, W. Stephenson, M. F. Sutton,
It is impossible in a book of this type to credit every piece D'A W. Thompson, C. A. Villee, W. F. Walker, R.
of information to its original source; indeed in many cases Warwick, T. H. Waterman, D. M. S. Watson, J. E. Webb,
the original source has been lost. I am deeply indebted to P. S. Welch, T. S. Westoll, P. J. Whitehead, V. B.
many zoologists, without whom the book could not have Wigglesworth, P. H. Williams, D. M. Wilson, H. V.
been written, and particularly to: A. J. Alexander, R. McN Wilson, C. M. Yonge, J. Z. Young.
Alexander, D. AIkins, R. D. Allen, E. P. Allis, D. T. I should like to thank Faber for permission to quote from
Anderson, S. B. Barber, E. J. W. Barrington, R. D. 'Archy and Mehitabel' by Don Marquis, Methuen for
Barnes, G. R. de Beer, A. d'A Bellairs, N. J. Berrill, Q. permission to quote from 'Now we are six' by A. A. Milne,
Berry, A. Bidder, W. Bloom, Q. Bone, B. Bracegirdle, A. and Unwin for permission to quote 'The Fly' and 'The
Brodal, T. H. Bullock, R. M. Cable, A. C. Campbell, J. D. Termite' by Ogden Nash.
Contents
Introduction 1 Order Monogenea: Polystomum 66
Order Digenea: Fasciola 67
The characteristics of living things 1 Class Cestoda 72
The differences between animals and plants 1 Subclass Eucestoda: Taenia 72
The cell 2 Synopsis of phylum Platyhelminthes 76
Cell division 5 Phylum Nemertinea 76
Animal classification 8 Phylum Mesozoa 81
The origins and interrelationships of animals 9 Phylum Gnathostomulida 82
Animals and their environment 11
Animal body cavities 84
Phylum Protozoa 14
Amoeba: a protozoan of simple structure 14 The pseudocoelomate phyla 85
A general consideration of protozoan structure 17
Euglena: a 'plant-like' protozoan 18 Super phylum Aschelminthes 85
Paramecium: a complex protozoan 20 Phylum Nematoda: Ascaris 85
Monocystis and Plasmodium: parasitic Protozoa 25 Minor pseudocoelomate phyla 90
The classification of the Protozoa 28 Phylum Rotifera 90
Protozoan diversity 28 Phylum Gastrotricha 92
Synopsis of the Protozoa 33 Phylum Kinorhyncha 93
Phylum Nematomorpha 94
Phylum Acanthocephala 95
Phylum Porifera 34
Phylum Annelida 97
The Radiata 38
Introduction to the coelomate animals and metamerism 97
Phylum Cnidaria 38 Class Polychaeta: Nereis 98
Hydra: an example of a polyp 38 Arenicola marina 104
Obelia: a representative hydrozoan 42 Polychaete diversity 107
Characteristics of the Cnidaria 45 Class Oligochaeta: Lumbricus terrestris 109
Class Scyphozoa 45 Earthworms and the soil 115
Aurelia: a representative scyphozoan 45 Class Hirudinea: Hirudo medicinalis 116
Class Anthozoa 47 Hirudinean diversity 119
Actinia: a representative anthozoan 48 Synopsis of phylum Annelida 120
Cnidarian classification and diversity 49
Synopsis of phylum Cnidaria 55
Phylum Arthropoda 121
Phylum Ctenophora 55
Introduction to the Arthropoda 121
Synopsis of the phylum Arthropoda 123
The acoelomate bilateral phyla 59
Subphylum Crustacea 125
Phylum Platyhelminthes 59 Astacus 125
Class Turbellaria 59 Crustacean diversity and classification 130
The planarians: examples of free-living platyhelminths 60 Class Branchiopoda 130
Characteristics of the Platyhelminthes 65 Class Ostracoda 132
Class Trematoda 65 Class Copepoda 132
Structure of a generalized trematode 65 Class Cirripedia 133
Trematode life cycles 66 Classes Mystacocarida and Branchiura 134
Class Malacostraca 134 Class Scaphopoda 186
Synopsis of the subphylum Crustacea 137 Class Aplacophora 186
Successful land arthropods 137
Class Cephalopoda: Sepia 187
Subphylum Uniramia 137 Cephalopod diversity 190
Class Insecta 137 Synopsis of class Cephalopoda 191
Locusta: the locust 137
Periplaneta: the cockroach 144
Metamorphosis 145 Early embryonic development:
Insect diversity 147 the protostomes and
Insect social organization 154 deuterosto mes 192
Synopsis of the main insect orders 156
The minor coelomate phyla 195
The myriapodous arthropoda 156
Class Chilopoda: the centipedes 156 Introduction to the minor coelomate phyla 195
Class Diplopoda: the millipedes 157
Class Symphyla 157 The minor protostome coelomates 195
Class Pauropoda 157 Phylum Priapuloidea 195
Phylum Sipunculoidea 196
The chelicerate arthropods 158 Phylum Echiuroidea 198
Class Merostomata: Limulus 158 Phylum Pogonophora 199
Class Arachnida: Araneus 160 Phylum Tardigrada 200
Arachnid diversity 163 Phylum Pentastomida 201
Class Pycnogonida 165
Synopsis of subphylum Chelicerata 166 The lophophorate phyla 202
Phylum Bryozoa
Primitive arthropods 166 (also known as Ectoprocta or Polyzoa) 202
Subphylum Trilobitomorpha 166 Bryozoan diversity 204
Phylum Onychophora: Peripatus 167 Phylum Brachiopoda 204
Phylum Entoprocta 206
Phylum Phoronida 207
Phylum Mollusca 169
Introduction 169 The invertebrate deuterostomes 209
The molluscan plan: a hypothetical ancestor 170
Molluscan larvae 172 Phylum Echinodermata 209
Primitive living molluscs: Class Monoplacophora: Class Asteroidea: Asterias 211
Neopilina 172 Echinoderm diversity 214
Class Polyplacophora 173 Class Ophiuroidea: Ophiothrix 215
The major mollusc classes 173 Class Echinoidea: Echinus 216
The minor echinoderm classes 218
Class Gastropoda: Helix 173 Class Holothuroidea 218
Gastropod diversity 178 Class Crinoidea 220
Subclass Prosobranchia 178 Echinoderm relationships 221
Subclass Opisthobranchia 180 Synopsis of the Echinodermata 222
Subclass Pulmonata 181
Synopsis of class Gastropoda 181 The minor deuterostome phyla 222
Phylum Chaetognatha 222
Class Bivalvia: Mytilus edulis 181 Phylum Hemichordata 224
Bivalve diversity 184 Class Enteropneusta 224
Subclass Proto branchia 184 Class Pterobranchia 226
Subclass Lamellibranchia 184
Subclass Septibranchia 185
Freshwater bivalves 185 Phylum Chordata 228
Synopsis of class Bivalvia 186
Introduction to the phylum Chordata 228
Two minor mollusc classes 186 Subphylum Urochordata: Ciona 228
Urochordate diversity 232 Chondrichthyan diversity 313
Class Ascidiacea 232 Living forms 313
Class Thaliacea 232 Fossil elasmobranchs 315
Class Larvacea 233 Synopsis of Class Elasmobranchiomorphii 316
Synopsis of subphylum Urochordata 233
Subphylum Cephalochordata: Branchiostoma 234 Class Teleostomi (Osteichthyes) 317
Synopsis of the phylum Chordata 237 Salmo 317
Telestome diversity 324
The Actinopterygii 324
Introduction to the subphylum Subclass Sarcopterygii 329
Vertebrata 237 Synopsis of the class Teleostomi 331
Introduction to the tetrapods: the pentadactyl limb 332
Animal body tissues 238
Epithelial tissue 239 Class Amphibia 333
Connective tissues 240 Rana 333
Skeletal connective tissue 242 Amphibian diversity 343
Muscular tissue 245 Order U rodela 343
Nervous tissue 246 Order Anura 345
Order Apoda 346
Vertebrate organ systems 247 The fossil Amphibia: Subclasses Labyrinthodontia
The integumentary system 247 and Lepospondyli 346
The skeleto-muscular system 248 Synopsis of the class Amphibia 347
The digestive system 252 Introduction to the amniotes 347
The respiratory system 257
The circulatory system 258 Class Reptilia 347
The urinogenital system 260 Lacerta 347
The nervous system 264 Reptile diversity 355
The endocrine system 273 Living reptiles 356
Fossil reptiles 360
The early development of chordates 276 Synopsis of the class Reptilia 363
The development of amphioxus 276
Vertebrate development 280 Class Aves 363
The development of the frog 280 Columba 367
Amniote development 284 Bird diversity 374
The development of mammals 288 Synopsis of the class Aves 380
Summary of chordate embryology 292
Summary of the fate of the primary germ layers 292 Class Mammalia 380
Rattus 384
Mammalian diversity 394
Vertebrate diversity 293 Subclass Prototheria (the monotremes) 395
Subclass Theria 396
Introduction 293 Infraclass Metatheria: the marsupials 396
Infraclass Eutheria 396
Class Agnatha 294 Order Insectivora 397
Lampetra 294 Order Chiroptera 397
Agnathan diversity 300 The carnivorous mammals 398
The living Agnatha 300 The small herbivorous mammals 401
Fossil agnathans: the ostracoderms 301 The large herbivores 403
Synopsis of the class Agnatha 303 The subungulates 407
Introduction to the gnathostomes 303 Some minor mammalian orders 408
Order Primates 409
Class Elasmobranchiomorphii 304 Synopsis of the class Mammalia 412
Subclass Chondrichthyes: Scyliorhinus 304
Introduction
The characteristics of living things obviously in the case of most animals, rather more slowly
and less obviously in the case of most plants. In general the
At a superficial level it is easy to separate the non-living responses of living things are adaptive. They are able either
from the living; no one is, for example, likely to confuse a to alter their immediate surroundings by moving from the
horse and a rock! However, when all living things are unfavourable to the more favourable, or may modify
considered from the smallest to the greatest, superficial themselves to make them better suited to their
distinctions are no longer sufficient and more precise environment. Obviously this adjustability is not indefinite
definitions have to be made. Briefly, living things can be and no organism can adjust to all conditions of, for example,
recognized by the following characteristics: to a greater or temperature. However, some organisms are far better at
lesser extent all are capable of metabolism, growth, tolerating unfavourable conditions than others.
reproduction, response to stimuli and movement. The study of living things forms the subject of biology
Metabolism is the general name given to a wide variety of (from the Greek bios meaning 'life' logos meaning
chemical processes carried out by all living organisms, and 'knowledge'). Modern biology is an extremely diverse
involving transformation of energy. It is useful to subject embracing a vast number of different specialisations
distinguish between anabolic processes in which simple ranging from cytology, the study of the detailed structure
chemicals are combined to make more complex substances and function of a cell, to ecology, the study of living things in
and energy is stored (for example protein formation) and their natural environment. Zoology is concerned with the
catabolic processes in which complex substances are broken biology of animals.
down with release of energy (for example cellular
respiration). Both kinds of metabolism occur continuously
in living things, and all other phenomena of life (growth,
reproduction, irritability etc.) require an expenditure of The differences between animals
energy by the cell. and plants
If the energy entering a system is measured, and
compared with that which leaves it, the measurements are The differences between the animal and plant kingdoms as a
found to be the same. Energy is neither created nor whole are obvious. If it is easy to distinguish between a
destroyed, but is transformed from one form to another. horse and a rock, it is equally easy to distinguish between a
This idea is expressed in the First Law of Thermodynamics, horse and a pine tree. The man in the street would probably
sometimes called the Law of Conservation of Energy. In make the following distinctions: 'Pine trees are green,
biological systems the primary energy source is the sun. horses are not' and 'Horses move, pine trees do not'.
Radiant energy from the sun is transformed by green plants However both horses and pine trees are complex
into chemical energy within carbohydrate molecules, as the representatives of their respective kingdoms, and at the
energy of the bonds which hold the constituent atoms level of the simpler plants and animals the distinction
together. This process is known as photosynthesis (see becomes blurred. For example, Euglena is green, and also
below). This chemical energy is stored in a biologically moves: sea anemones usually remain fixed in one place and
useful form in phosphate bonds by cellular respiration and is yet are clearly animals. If there is a real distinction between
then used by the cell to do various forms of work. The plants and animals then it must be based on other
energy released in this process flows back into the characteristics.
environment as heat. The most basic difference between animals and plants is
Growth involves increase in living material, apparent their means of nutrition. Green plants, for example, are
either in the size of an individual, or by the production of able to manufacture the organic materials they require from
new individuals. The ability of an organism to reproduce simple inorganic materials using sunlight as a source of
itself may be regarded as the definitive characteristic of life. energy (autotrophic nutrition). Energy-storing molecules
A consequence of reproduction is that living things are are manufactured from carbon dioxide and water and the
recognizable by a characteristic form and appearance. A process can be summarised by the following equation:
horse is basically similar to all other horses and a pine tree to
all other pine trees.
energy
All living things, plants as well as animals, show response
carbon + water from glucose + oxygen
to changes in the physical or chemical nature of their
dioxide sunlight
surroundings (sometimes termed irritability). One of the
commonest responses is to move: immediately and This is a simplification of a process known as photosynthesis
1
2 Animal Diversity
which involves a complex series of intermediate changes which eat invertebrates, which eat algae. Obviously, each
and uses energy intercepted from sunlight by chlorophyll, in transfer between organisms involves a dissipation of energy
specialised cell organelles, the chloroplasts. Chlorophyll through respiration, and in practice food chains seldom
gives the green colouration typical of plants. With this involve more than four or five steps.
organic starting point the plant can use inorganic salts In summary, all animals must procure food and oxygen
(nitrates, phosphates and sulphates) to make the wide range and remove wastes in order to grow and reproduce. All
of organic substances (amino acids, proteins, animals are adapted to fulfil these functions in different
carbohydrates, nucleic acids) of which it is composed. ways which depend in part upon the kind of environment
Animals, on the other hand, are not capable of they inhabit and their mode of life. The size of the animal
photosynthesis although they require essentially the same has a particular modifying effect. The smaller an animal, the
organic materials as plants. They therefore have to obtain less problematical both the process of procuring food and
these by feeding on complex organic food substances oxygen and the removal of metabolic wastes. Increased size
(heterotrophic nutrition). Certain essential organic demands increased efficiency, and development of systems
substances must be present in the diet and from these the of internal transport for food materials, oxygen, and waste
animal can manufacture the precise materials of which it is products. The response to these demands is the basis for the
composed. incredible diversity seen within the animal kingdom.
This basic difference in feeding behaviour has a direct Approximately 1,250,000 species of living animals have
implication for the structure of the animal. Plants, which do been described and undoubtedly very many more remain to
not need to search for their food, remain fixed in one place be discovered.
and obtain the necessary carbon dioxide and light by a large
system of leaf-bearing shoots, and water and inorganic
substances by a root system. Since plants do not have to
move from one location, they are able to show almost The cell
unlimited growth, with multiplication of the parts of both
root and shoot systems to an indefinite size. Animals have to The cell is the basic unit of most living organisms. An
be able to seek and obtain their food, and the vast majority amoeba, one of the simplest animals, consists of a single
find it by moving about. They therefore are restricted to a cell, within which all the life activities are performed. In
maximum size (which in comparison with many plants is contrast, the human body consists of many millions of cells
usually small) and a fixed number of parts such as limbs. arranged into organs, such as lungs and heart, each
They must have a means of recognizing their food, and specialized to carry out one or more life activities. However,
therefore have sense organs and associated nervous if a single cell of man is compared with an amoeba many
systems. To capture and digest food requires many more similarities can be found.
special structural adaptations. Oxygen is needed in large The existence of cells was first recognized by Robert
quantities to provide the energy required for movement and Hooke in 1665, when studying a section of cork through a
for the metabolism of food, and therefore many animals very early compound microscope. Hooke concentrated on
have evolved elaborate systems to obtain it from the the easily visible thick cell wall, characteristic of plants, but
environment. Finally, excretory systems are necessary to also recognized that the 'cells' of many tissues contained
eliminate waste products from the body. Thus almost all the 'juices'. Animal cells do not form rigid cellulose cell walls as
structure of an animal can be related to its nutritional needs. plants do and their cell boundaries are far less conspicuous.
In the simplest unicellular animals and plants these Plant and animal cells therefore appear very different when
differences do not apply. In fact in many cases it is difficult studied under the light microscope, and were at first
to say to which kingdom an organism belongs, especially as regarded as fundamentally different structures. It was not
a unicellular form may have the nutritional characteristics of until 1838-39 that Schwann and Schielden postulated the
both animals and plants. This problem has led many Cell Theory, that the cell is the basic unit of all living
workers to suggest that unicellular forms should be placed organisms.
together in a separate kingdom, Protista. The term 'protoplasm' for the fluid cell contents, the
Since the plants (and some bacteria) are the only 'juices', was coined by Purkinje in 1840. It has no clear
organisms which can synthesise carbohydrates from physical or chemical definition but may be regarded as
inorganic materials, thus converting energy from the sun meaning all the organized constituents of a cell. The
into a useable form, all animal life ultimately depends on structure and functions of protoplasm are enormously
them. The transfer of energy in the form of organic matter complex and have been extensively studied from the stand
from its initial source in a plant through a series of points of chemistry and organization. By far the major
organisms, each of which eats the preceding one and is in constituent of protoplasm, and therefore of living things, is
turn eaten by the following one, is known as a food chain. water: both a lettuce and the Prime Minister are about 80
Humans are involved in a number of food chains. A simple per cent water. The chemical composition of protoplasm
example is man eats cow eats grass. Rather more complex varies a great deal, especially between plant and animal
situations may involve eating fish which eat smaller fish cells, but the most important elements are hydrogen and