ANDREW JACKSON AND THE INDIANS, 1767-1815 by JONATHAN RAY TONY FREYER ...

283 Pages·2014·0.81 MB·English

ANDREW JACKSON AND THE INDIANS, 1767-1815

by

JONATHAN RAY
TONY FREYER, COMMITTEE CHAIR
DAVID BEITO
LARRY CLAYTON
HOWARD JONES
GREGORY WASELKOV

A DISSERTATION

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
in the Department of History
in the Graduate School of
The University of Alabama

TUSCALOOSA, ALABAMA

2014
Copyright Jonathan Ray 2014
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
ABSTRACT
Andrew Jackson’s experience with the Indians was an ambivalent relationship. From his
childhood along the South Carolina-North Carolina border through his two terms as president, he
had extensive interaction with both friendly and enemy Indians. As a child in South Carolina,
Jackson grew up around the peaceful Catawba Indians. During the American War for
Independence he served as a scout alongside the Catawbas as members of his community fought
the British and their Indian allies from the west, most notably the Cherokees. Serving in this
capacity he learned the value of Indian alliances that he carried with him throughout his
professional, military, and political career.
Jackson came into direct contact with the Indians as he moved to Tennessee, as a young
lawyer and businessman. In the western territory, various Indian tribes claimed the land the
Whites were settling. Jackson learned to distinguish between the tribes that were recognized by
the United States government as having legitimate claims to land and those that were not.
Several tribes, particularly the Creeks and the Chickamaugas, a dissident faction of the
Cherokees, frequently raided the White settlements in Tennessee, forcing Jackson to fight the
Indians in defense of his community. He became an Indian fighter out of necessity and fought
the enemy Indians while aligning with the friendly Chickasaws. During the Creek War and the
War of 1812, Jackson applied his experience of using friendly Indian tribes to defeat the British
and their Indian allies. He rewarded those who were loyal and punished those who joined
Britain.
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He carried this experience to his post-war career as Indian agent, and later, as president,
negotiating dozens of treaties with the Indians as he insisted upon removal as the best policy. In
these treaties he exchanged federal territory west of the Mississippi River for Indian land in the
east. Although he is most well-known for signing the Indian Removal Act, he promoted the
rights of Indians at times as he allowed Indian citizenship, encouraged intermarriage between
Whites and Indians, frequently had Indian leaders as guests in his home, and adopted an Indian
child. He advocated for removal through the exchange of land in treaties to preserve tribal
autonomy.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
First, I would like to thank Jesus Christ for his grace, blessings, and making all things
possible.
I am fortunate to have had the support of my family through this process. Thanks to my
beautiful wife Michelle for allowing me to be her partner for life. She provided unwavering
support as she sacrificed and patiently waited for me to finish this project. She kept our family
strong as I researched and wrote the dissertation. I am proud of “my favorite boy in the world,”
my son Alexander, who makes my life fun. I adore my precious daughter Madison. My father
and mother, James and Ruby Ray, provided a stable Christian home for me, my brothers, and
sister, as well as numerous foster children in my youth. My mother taught me to value education
before I started school and laid the foundation for my intellectual success. My father instilled a
strong work ethic in me at a young age as I observed how he never took a day off except the
Sabbath, when we went to church twice, no exceptions. My parents made sure we never lacked
anything we needed and have done this for thousands of children in Mexico through their
mission work as well. My siblings, David Ray, Stephen Ray, and Deborah Derrick, took time to
be role models and teachers for me throughout my youth and have always been supportive. Their
spouses and children are also a blessing: Crystal Ray, Callie Ray, Nolie Ray, Scott Derrick, and
Gracie Derrick. Thanks to my in-laws, Jim and Linda Barry, for accepting me into their family
so graciously and sacrificing themselves to make this process easier.
Professor Tony Freyer had the vision for this dissertation and helped develop my
thoughts and research into the final product. He patiently waited for me to submit chapters and
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always had constructive comments that improved my initial drafts. He never rejected a request to
meet and was willing to discuss the dissertation at any time. Numerous times he met me on the
weekend or at night, sacrificing his time, to help. I sent many e-mails in the middle of the night
and received a response from him before 8 a.m. as I was going to work. Truly, without Professor
Freyer, I could not have done this. Professors Larry Clayton and Howard Jones taught me how to
teach when I was a graduate student and came out of retirement to serve on this committee in this
past year. Professor David Beito has been one of my greatest mentors and friends throughout this
process as he served on the committee and gave me research jobs to help pay the bills in the
meantime. Professor Gregory Waselkov was kind to serve on the committee as he drove to
Tuscaloosa from the University of South Alabama and offered valuable comments and support. I
am honored to have these men on my committee. I greatly respect their work and integrity.
The staff of the History Department displayed kindness and patience in assisting me over
the years: Ellen Pledger, Fay Wheat, Kay Branyon, Holly Green, and Christina Kircharr. I would
also like to thank other professors and mentors who have helped along the way: Dr. Harold
Selesky, Dr. Stephen Slimp, Dr. O. Kimball Armayor, Dr. Linda Royster Beito, Dr. James
Mixson, Dr. Steve Bunker, Dr. Lawrence Kohl, Dr. Daniel Riches, Dr. John Giggie, Dr. Lisa
Lindquist-Dorr, Dr. Henry Walker, Dr. George Rable, Dr. Maarten Ultee, Dr. John Beeler, and
Dr. Margaret Abruzzo. Special thanks to Dr. Kari Frederickson and Dr. Michael Mendle, who, as
chairs of the History Department, allowed me to teach courses, which provided the financial
support I needed.
Josh Hagler has been my best friend since we were in kindergarten. He has challenged
me to excel intellectually, physically, and spiritually, and I am a better man because of him. Dr.
Chuck Boening, Dr. David Schroeder, and Corley Odom have been excellent mentors and I am
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blessed to call them friends. I’ve been fortunate to make music with P.J. Dickey, Jon May, Jeff
Brady, Michael Corbell, Tracy Williams, and Bob McKinney as supplemental income. Eric
Blaylock, Chris Weaver, Carlos Chang, Kenneth Patterson, Josh Markham, and Michael
Bergman have made my life more enjoyable. My friends from Samantha, Alabama, the greatest
place on the planet made my youth memorable: Anthony Estes, Steve Bowden, Brad Bolton,
Clay Hahn, Thad Harless, Ryan Alverson, Andrea Watkins, Matthew Rice, Jarrod Rice, and Clay
Rice. This great nation, the United States of America, of which Andrew Jackson was an integral
part, has provided an environment for individuals to flourish and I am proud to call it my home.

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CONTENTS
ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................... ii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ............................................................................................................. iv
INTRODUCTION ...........................................................................................................................1
CHAPTER ONE: JACKSON AND THE INDIANS IN BACKCOUNTRY SOUTH
CAROLINA TO THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION ...................................................................13
Jackson and the Waxhaws .................................................................................................15
Catawbas, Cherokees, and the Waxhaws ...........................................................................25
Jackson, South Carolina, and the Cherokees .....................................................................32
Jackson, the British, and the Indians during the Imperial Crisis of 1776 ..........................38
CHAPTER TWO: JACKSON, THE INDIANS, AND THE WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE ......47
Americans versus the Cherokees .......................................................................................48
The Waxhaws, the Catawbas, and the War for Independence ...........................................59
The British and the Indians ................................................................................................66
The British and the Waxhaws ............................................................................................73
CHAPTER THREE: FINDING A CAREER AND THE INDIAN CHALLENGE ......................89
Between the War and North Carolina ................................................................................90
The Decision to become a Lawyer .....................................................................................96
Jackson and Population ....................................................................................................104
Indian Land and Treaties in Tennessee, 1763-1788 ........................................................113

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CHAPTER FOUR: JACKSON IN TENNESSEE, 1788-1796: LAWYER, BUSINESSMAN,
AND INDIAN FIGHTER ............................................................................................................121
Jackson to Tennessee .......................................................................................................122
Jackson and Business .......................................................................................................129
Jackson’s Tennessee Connections ...................................................................................135
Jackson Learns of the Violent Frontier ............................................................................142
The Indian Fighter Out of Necessity ................................................................................152
CHAPTER FIVE: JACKSON AND THE INDIANS FROM HOPEWELL TO CONGRESS ..157
Indian Treaties in Tennessee ............................................................................................158
Spain, the Indians, and Violence, 1785-1797 ..................................................................166
The Shawnees and the Creeks ..........................................................................................172
Jackson and the Ambivalent Threat: Cherokees and Chickamaugas ...............................178
The Chickasaws ...............................................................................................................186
CHAPTER SIX: ANDREW JACKSON AND THE INDIANS FROM THE
CREEK WAR THROUGH THE BATTLE OF NEW ORLEANS .............................................193
Jackson versus Britain, Tecumseh, and the Creeks ...................................................195
General Jackson: From Natchez to Ft. Mims and the Creek War .............................203
Jackson and the Indians during the Creek War ..........................................................213
Jackson and the Indians from Pensacola to New Orleans..........................................224
EPILOGUE ..................................................................................................................................234
Jackson as Indian Agent .............................................................................................235
Jackson and Indian Removal .....................................................................................247
The Cherokee Cases, Indians Who Remained, and the Trail of Tears ......................256
BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................................................................................................265
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INTRODUCTION
Andrew Jackson had an ambivalent relationship with the Indians. The consensus of both
the Jackson and Indian historiography does not take into account the dual nature of Jackson’s
encounter with the Indians. From his childhood in the Waxhaw community in the backcountry of
South Carolina near the North Carolina border to his rise to prominence in Tennessee, he had
extensive interactions with both friendly and enemy Indians. This dissertation explores the many
levels of his contact with various tribes from his youth through his two terms as president of the
United States. The result adds an important dimension to our understanding of Jackson during
takeover and exchange of Indian lands through war, treaty, and purchase during the colonial
period and during the struggle between competing Indian, federal, and state authorities.
The sources for this dissertation are a combination of state papers, Jackson’s
correspondence and papers, Jackson biographies, and Indian historiography. The best resources
for work on Jackson are The Papers of Andrew Jackson, Legal Papers of Andrew Jackson, and
Correspondence of Andrew Jackson.1 Because so little primary evidence is available from
Jackson’s youth, recent works on the Carolinas during the Revolutionary period provide the story
of Jackson’s life as a boy and during the American Revolution.2 Relevant state and colonial

1 Sam B. Smith, Harriet Chappell Owsley, Harold D. Moser, Sharon Macpherson, David R. Hoth, John H. Reinbold,
George H. Hoemann, J. Clint Clift, Daniel Feller, Laura Eve-Moss, Thomas Coens, et al., eds. The Papers of
Andrew Jackson (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1980-2010); James W. Ely, Jr. and Theodore Brown,
Jr., eds. Legal Papers of Andrew Jackson (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1987); John Spencer Bassett
and Daniel M. Matteson, eds. Correspondence of Andrew Jackson 6 vols. (New York: Kraus Reprint, 1969).
2 Peter N. Moore. World of Toil and Strife: Community Transformation in Backcountry South Carolina, 1750-1805
(Columbia: The University of South Carolina Press, 2007); Hendrik Booraem. Young Hickory: The Making of
Andrew Jackson (Dallas: Taylor Trade Publishing, 2001); Tom Hatley. The Dividing Paths: Cherokees and South
Carolinians through the Era of Revolution (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993).
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