Anarchists of the Highlands ? a critical review of a stereotype

18 Pages·2009·0.21 MB·English

by  Chaipigusit, P.

Anarchists of the Highlands? A Critical
Review of a Stereotype Applied to the Lisu
Prasert Chaipigusit
"It is difficult now, back in civilization, to
evoke the sense offreedom that comes upon a
man when hestandson a mountaintopandlooks
out over tens of thousands of acres offertile
and unexplored land in the valleysbelow. It is
only then that a man knows that, given the wit
and willto survive, he need not bow his headto
any government, to any ideology, to any small
minded men who feel that they control the
essentials ofhis existence. 1 understood more
fully ....the Lisu."
Eugene Morse Exodus to a Hidden Valley
[1974: 64-65]
The Lisu are often characterised as strong individualists,
to the extent even of labelling thern as anarchists. This paper
will find out where such a decidedly provocative stereotype
originated and its basis in fact, brief\y touch on the problern
of pejorative labels used in reference to the hill tribes and
discuss at sorne length why the nature of Lisu culture and
social structure does not lend itselfto such a description.
1will argue thar while the Lisu display an individuality
which is typical of highlanders, it is difficult to take this
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PROBLEMS
observation much further. Like aIl highlanders, their house
holds are relatively independent and provide the foundation
for a socio-economic and political framework which mediates
day to day activities. They may meet Spencer's definition of
an anarchist in that they are proud of a long standing
tradition which, "denies the right of any government....to
trench upon [their] cultural ideology [which could in difficult
circumstances place] them in opposition to the rule of law
and central government" but opposition isnot a position they
prefer to adopt: they are much too pragrnatic.
In fact the stereotype becomesdangerous when, because
oftheir long association with the Yunnanese (a fewof whom
make their livingtradinginopiumand manufacturing heroin),
they are seento be engaged as partners rather than employees
in illegal activities. Lisu villages appear to have been the
hardest hit by deliberately intimidating or poorly disciplined,
punitive army raids on opium growing communities.
Such a misunderstanding, built on years of cultural
development marked by a high level of mistrust between
lowlanders and highlanders, can do little good today. The
ironie truth of the matter is thar most Lisu, like hill people
in general, are anxious to become Thai citizens. How then
to reconcile the image imposed on them and the identity or
legalstatus to which they aspire?
Stereotypes andstereotyping
It is quite normal for people to form impressions of
the places they visit, We are often advised that first impres
sions count, that they mean something which is worth
remembering. Visitors to Lisu villages most often first
remark on the fierceness of the dogs and then on the proud
egalitarian bearing of the people. Once it is discovered that
others hold to a similar opinion the observation takes on a
weight that makes it acceptable. Once part of an acceptable
body of popular or consensus knowledge, the information and
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Lisu asAnarchists
the labels usedappear to take on a life of their own. People
entering a Lisu villagecome expecting to see fierce dogs and
a proud people so much so that they do not see the sleeping
dogs but remember the one dog in a hundred that leaps, teeth
bared in display; they do not see people sitting quietly in the
shade of their houses embroidering or mending tools but only
theweildressedmanproudlyleavingthevillagewitharifleslung
over his shoulder.
Where does this take us? A broad discussion of the
labels and mythology promoted by tour companies would
make a study in itself. The type ofadvertising whichappears
on bill boards around Chaing Mai (See Plate) are enough to
illustratethis. However the broader problem of the sociology
of knowledge concerning the highlands and addressed in one
way or another by most contributors to this book is perhaps
bestleft foramoreacademiepublication. Hereletmelimitmy
self to labels attached to the Lisu.
Forming a popular opinion about a highland group is
not just something left to wide-eyed travellers. Missionaries
returning to the USA and elsewhereexplaining their work to
congregations, who provide them with the means to continue
their work in their field, indulge in romantic terms to describe
"their people".
Paul Lewis, for example, is a Baptist missionary who
has worked in Burma since 1947and northern Thailand since
1968. His colourful book, Peoples ofthe Goden Traingle, is
one of the most popular and frequently cited studies of the
highland people, and its accounts often resort to stereotypes
to distinguish the six different groups he describes. The
chapter on the Lisu is headed "Desire for Primacy" and first
describeschildren competing to wear the most beautiful New
Year costumes. He concludes the section by saying "A Lisu
always wants to be first" [Lewis, 1984: 241] and develops
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the theme into a portrayai of a people predisposed to a strong
sense of competition and assertion of individual rights which
can lead to violence. Lewis says it has been reported that
village headman have been killed after adjudication against
an aggrievedparty and asserts that killingsare probably more
frequent among the Lisu "than any other tribal group"
[Lewis, 1984: 270] although he gives no evidence to support
this. The chapter concludes "For every Lisu wants to excel"
[Lewis, 1984:271].
The missionary, Eugene Morse, in his account of his
family's adventures in the fascinating journal Exodus to a
Hidden Valley presents very few generalisations about the
Lisu and these are quite different from those of Lewis.
Morse sees the Lisu as "a very independent people" [Morse,
1974: 39] and rather than given to violence writes that to
avoid offence "The Lisu do not hold with the cornmon
democratie concept of majority rule. They feel that the
losing minority is bound to be unhappy.... problem(s are)
discussed and discussed until an obvious answer emerges".
ln the following paragraph Morse goes on to note,
Itseemsonly logicalthat, in a situation whereman
almost literally holds hislifeinhisown two hands,
eachindividualshould begrantedasmuchparticipa
tion as possible in the decision-making process....
thereisnosetperogative, status or authorityamong
individuals. Many times Robert and 1- and our
wives as well-had to instantly obey orders from
our children unquestioningly and instantly (Morse,
1974: 199-2(0).
The extent of the identification of Lisu ways as a
functional and natural response to the environment is also
reflected in the quotation offered at the beginning of this
Chapter. It is remarkable how closely in approximates to
Spencer's definition ofan anarchist.
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Lisu asAnarchists
The picture which is built up by exposure to such
observations may largely depend on what one thinks of the
writer rather than who the Lisu really are. Missionaries are
notoriously defensive of "their" people and it is interesting
to note that Lewis has specialised on the Akha and Lahu.
How to get out of this opinion trap? To what extent can
anthropologists lead us to a more objective view?
ln fact the anthropologist Dessaint offers comments
not too dissimilar to those of Morse when he states that the
Lisu highly value the exercise of equal rights [Dessaint, 1972:
96]. Durrenberger also points out that "There are no headmen
to make decisions for the villagers, and Lisu loath assertive
and autocratie headmen and that this amongst other
characteristics are hallmarks of an egalitarian society"
[Durrenberger, 1983:218].
It is in the work of anthropologists that we are most
likely to meet ourselves coming the other way. As outsiders
do we foist an identity on ethnolinguistic groups or do we
merely promote behavioural cultural characteristics of which
we approve? One Lisu adage which has always appealed
to me is the enigmatic saying that aIl people are the same
height at the knee. 1 have observed that young people are
encouraged to speak at meetings and a strong response
must be expected from anybody slighted by word or deed.
However, it is a long behavioural leap from
egalitarianism to anarchism. When the government asks a
Lisu village to appoint a village headman, the community
willreadily respond even though they might not feel the need
to make a formaI appointment in the absence of a request.
Their sense of social order runs deep and their pragmatism
is readily mobilised to maintain peace. For a society with a
reputation for independence, we should not be surprised to
learn how remarkably obedient they are and how strictly they
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PROBLEMS
maintain the rules which support their social structure. Let
me review the main institutional components of their society.
The Family and Lineage
Both the nuclear and extended family are known in
Lisu society. When young people marry and bring their
spouse into their family of origin,the household becomes an
extended family. When a married couple decide to set up
their own house, the process begins again.
Lisu are largely monogamous. Although they do not
forbid a man to have more than one wife, the practice is
uncommon. If a man has enough money to pay the bride
priee and the first wife allows it, he may take a second wife.
This only works for men - women are not allowed to take
another husband.
Lisu prefer to marry within their own society with
lineages maintained through the male line. After marriage
the husband usually lives with his wife's parents until he has
paid off the bride priee when he usually moves back into his
own parents' house, bringing his wife with him.
Each ofthese changes provides an opportunity for the
couple to set up their own house but this wish for independence
cannot always be fulfilled. The husband must discharge his
matrimonial debts before he is free to do as he chooses.
Even when a couple set up their own household, they usually
choose to make their home in the village of their parents.
Parents continue to provide support for their married children
and it isadvantageous for the couple to remain in a village in
which lineage support is available and reciprocal labour
exchange easy.
The lineageisby far the most important broader matrix
of Lisu social structure. Although according to the stated
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Lisu as Anarchists
ideal that any one lineage is supposed to be the equal of aU
others, itisconsideredbest to keep numbers up byencouraging
cross cousins to marry and remain. This helps to maintain
their strength and therefore their bargaining position within
the community.
There are more than 30 Lisu lineages but the Lisu
daim that· only five to six of these are strictly of Lisu origin,
the remainder are considered to have been initiated by Chinese
marrying into their society. These are still however regarded
as equally valid and operate along the same lines. Although
lineages are important, within lineages the relationship
between sister and brother is much doser than thar between
cousins. Ali relatives have to sorne extent an obligation to
help and care for one another.
In smail villages perhaps only two to three lineages
will be represented but in a big village it is not unusual to
have more than ten resident lineages.
The difference between lineages is most clearly marked
by the spirits worshipped at the household shrine. Each
family maintains its own offering bowls and the number
varies from household to household.
Family names are important in indicating whom one
can court. Those with the same family name (iineage) or who
are in the same sub-lineage cannot, in strict terms, even
consider marriage. However, although this is a taboo held to
quitestrictly, even thiscan be negotiated if the man has wealth
enough to purchase an exception.
In summary we can say that relationships between
sisters, brothers and close cousins are strongest. Second
order relationships include ail other members of the same
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PROBLEMS
lineage. Last in order of priority come one's obligations to
the community.
Educating Children
Lisu train and encourage their children to use their
ability to reason and express themselves in front of eiders.
Children are expected to speak in a forthright manner, not to
give in easily and if they feel they are right, to keep after a
point until it is accepted or shown to be suspect or false.
Both boys and girls speak their minds especially on matters
concerning values and rights. They do not readily admit thar
one of their peers is more important than they; everybody is
supposed to be equal. Within the family children are taught
not only to which lineage they belong but what they can
expect from it as weil as their duties towards others. They
learn who belongs to their lineage and to treat these people
as family and givesupport where needed.
Social hierachy: Headmen and Eiders.
Lisu are expected to show respect for their eiders,
especially those within their lineage, but village headmen and
administrators are less likely to be treated in the same
manner. Like most highlanders, their relationship with holders
of administrative offices is much more circumspect. Senior
villagers of good reputation will be shown respect regardless
of their lineage but a young headman with whom they have
few dealings will largely be ignored. If they experience
difficulties, they will in preference turn to their family first.
This is always the case. Although they know a headman
has an important relationship with the government, the
family cornes first.
Whether they hold the posinon formally as a
government headman or informally by consensus, community
leaders are accepted more for proven personal qualities than
wealth, trading connections or government friends. Such
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Lisu asAnarchists
people must be knowledgable, competent and trusted both to
respect and exercise the rights and concepts of freedom held
by Lisu society as a whole. They are ethically bound not
to hold themselves higher than others. Acceptance of
headmen neither makes is necessary to show respect towards
them at ail times nor to listen to and fol1ow ail the orders they
might give. Each office holder must establish his own
community credentials.
Each lineage in a village has one or two senior people,
usual1y older men who are acknowledged for their wisdom
and ability to influence others. As many as five to eight
elders may make up a traditional village committee. When
conflicts arise, this group has the duty of arbitrating and
settling the dispute through consultation. If they believe it
will help, they do not hesitate to approach government
officiais or development workers who may be asked to help
out by offering another opinion.· This committee is also
expected to schedule and participate in cultural activities
such as the new year ceremony, new rice festival, new corn
festival and burial ceremony.
Mo muang.
Ideally each village also has a mo muang, a religious
leader. It is only in Christian villages that such a person
cannot be found. Lisu believe in spirits, as do most
Buddhists, but their belief system demands that greater
respect be shown to them than in lowland society. To
become a mo muang, a man must pass a selection test
conducted in front of the village spirit shrine. The candidate
is expected to throw two sticks to the ground three times in
a row and have them both land face up each time. If he is
able to do this he is acknowledged as a mo muang. In fact
as
the selection process is not quite as casual this. Candidates
are usually married men with children and have other family
responsibilities. Before they become candidates they must
already have a good knowledge of ritual, The position cannot
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be inherited and for as long as a mo muang is resident in the
village where he was "chosen" he cannot give up the post.
His duties only end whenhe leavesthe community,
The mo muang is responsible for fostering religious
knowledge, playing a leading role in the performance of
ritual and looking after the spirit shrine. He must go to the
village spirit shrine every 15 days to change the water and
it is he who announces what days are auspicious and hence
when people should stop work. The mo muang is also a
member ofthe senior committee. Ifthe villagedoes not have
either avillageheadman (phu va; ban)or anassistant headman,
the mo muang is expected to fill this role.
Ne; pa.
The ne;pa medium is a kind of spirit doctor who acts
as a contact between the spirit world and the everyday world
in which we live. People have many reasons to contact
spirits, whether to seek out reasons for sickness or to have
their fortunes told. Lisu respect spirits because they believe
that they know the rhyme and reason of life which is hidden
from humans. When consulted about the cause of sickness
or other troubles, the ne;pa usually indicate that sorne form
of propitiation is necessary to secure their support. Those
who follow hisadvice believeit willsolvetheir problems.
Only men can be mediums, and although there is no
rule regarding this, a disproportionate number of the sons of
spirit doctors become ne;pa. The expectation placed on him
is stronger than that placed on mo muang. Once a medium,
alwaysa medium. The spirit doctor cannot quit or withdraw
even if he moves away from the village where public
acknowledgement was first made of his skills: he remains a
ne; pa until the end ot his life. When he grows old, he
becomes a very special person, whose knowledge is greatly
revered.
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