Analytical Techniques in the Oil and Gas Industry for Environmental Monitoring

444 Pages·2020·10.766 MB·English

by  Melissa N. Dunkle (editor), William L. Winniford (editor)

(cid:2)
AnalyticalTechniquesintheOilandGasIndustryforEnvironmental
Monitoring
(cid:2) (cid:2)
(cid:2)
(cid:2)
Analytical Techniques in the Oil and Gas
Industry for Environmental Monitoring
Edited by
Melissa N. Dunkle
TheNetherlands
William L. Winniford
(cid:2) USA (cid:2)
(cid:2)
(cid:2)
Thiseditionfirstpublished2020
©2020JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.
Allrightsreserved.Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproduced,storedinaretrievalsystem,
ortransmitted,inanyformorbyanymeans,electronic,mechanical,photocopying,recordingor
otherwise,exceptaspermittedbylaw.Adviceonhowtoobtainpermissiontoreusematerial
fromthistitleisavailableathttp://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.
TherightofMelissaN.DunkleandWilliamL.Winnifordtobeidentifiedastheauthorsofthe
editorialmaterialinthisworkhasbeenassertedinaccordancewithlaw.
RegisteredOffice
JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.,111RiverStreet,Hoboken,NJ07030,USA
EditorialOffice
111RiverStreet,Hoboken,NJ07030,USA
Fordetailsofourglobaleditorialoffices,customerservices,andmoreinformationaboutWiley
productsvisitusatwww.wiley.com.
Wileyalsopublishesitsbooksinavarietyofelectronicformatsandbyprint-on-demand.Some
contentthatappearsinstandardprintversionsofthisbookmaynotbeavailableinother
formats.
LimitofLiability/DisclaimerofWarranty
Inviewofongoingresearch,equipmentmodifications,changesingovernmentalregulations,
andtheconstantflowofinformationrelatingtotheuseofexperimentalreagents,equipment,
(cid:2) anddevices,thereaderisurgedtoreviewandevaluatetheinformationprovidedinthepackage (cid:2)
insertorinstructionsforeachchemical,pieceofequipment,reagent,ordevicefor,amongother
things,anychangesintheinstructionsorindicationofusageandforaddedwarningsand
precautions.Whilethepublisherandauthorshaveusedtheirbesteffortsinpreparingthiswork,
theymakenorepresentationsorwarrantieswithrespecttotheaccuracyorcompletenessofthe
contentsofthisworkandspecificallydisclaimallwarranties,includingwithoutlimitationany
impliedwarrantiesofmerchantabilityorfitnessforaparticularpurpose.Nowarrantymaybe
createdorextendedbysalesrepresentatives,writtensalesmaterialsorpromotionalstatements
forthiswork.Thefactthatanorganization,website,orproductisreferredtointhisworkasa
citationand/orpotentialsourceoffurtherinformationdoesnotmeanthatthepublisherand
authorsendorsetheinformationorservicestheorganization,website,orproductmayprovide
orrecommendationsitmaymake.Thisworkissoldwiththeunderstandingthatthepublisheris
notengagedinrenderingprofessionalservices.Theadviceandstrategiescontainedhereinmay
notbesuitableforyoursituation.Youshouldconsultwithaspecialistwhereappropriate.
Further,readersshouldbeawarethatwebsiteslistedinthisworkmayhavechangedor
disappearedbetweenwhenthisworkwaswrittenandwhenitisread.Neitherthepublishernor
authorsshallbeliableforanylossofprofitoranyothercommercialdamages,includingbutnot
limitedtospecial,incidental,consequential,orotherdamages.
LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationDataappliedfor
HardbackISBN:9781119523307
CoverDesign:Wiley
CoverImage:CourtesyofTheDowChemicalCompany
Setin9.5/12.5ptSTIXTwoTextbySPiGlobal,Chennai,India
PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
(cid:2)
(cid:2)
v
Contents
PartI Scope 1
1 Introduction 3
MelissaN.DunkleandWilliamL.Winniford
1.1 Introduction 3
1.1.1 PetroleumCycle 3
(cid:2) (cid:2)
1.1.2 Well-KnownCasesofEnvironmentalContamination 4
1.1.2.1 Oil-DrillingRigDeepwaterHorizon 4
1.1.2.2 SanchiOilTankerCollision 6
1.1.3 Summary 6
1.2 Petroleum 7
1.3 Analytics 9
1.4 ReservoirTracers 12
1.5 EmissionsfromthePetroleumIndustry 12
1.6 EnvironmentalAnalysisandMonitoring 14
1.7 Conclusions 17
References 17
PartII IntroductiontothePetroleumIndustry 21
2 Petroleum:FromWellstoWheels 23
CliffordC.Walters,StevenW.Levine,andFrankC.Wang
2.1 Introduction 23
2.2 PetroleumintheAncientWorld 23
2.3 ThePetroleumSystem 28
2.3.1 SourceRocks 28
(cid:2)
(cid:2)
vi Contents
2.3.2 GenerationofPetroleum 34
2.3.3 MigrationandAccumulation 35
2.4 TheUpstream 37
2.4.1 Exploration 37
2.4.1.1 PlayandProspectEvaluation 38
2.4.1.2 PredictingPetroleumQuantityandQuality 43
2.4.2 Drilling 45
2.4.2.1 DevelopmentofDrillingTechnology 46
2.4.2.2 ModernDrillingPractices 49
2.4.2.3 WellLogging 52
2.4.2.4 Development 57
2.4.3 Production 58
2.4.3.1 Primary,Secondary,andTertiaryProduction 58
2.4.3.2 SurfaceOilSands 61
2.4.3.3 UnconventionalResources 61
2.4.3.4 PlugandAbandonment 66
2.5 Mid-Stream 67
2.5.1 Transportation 67
2.5.2 Storage 70
(cid:2) 2.6 Downstream 72 (cid:2)
2.6.1 EvolutionofModernRefining 72
2.6.2 ModernRefineryProcesses 73
2.6.2.1 CrudeOilPretreatment 75
2.6.2.2 Separation 75
2.6.2.3 Conversion 81
2.6.2.4 Purification 95
2.6.2.5 SweeteningandTreating 100
2.6.3 FuelProducts 102
2.6.3.1 Mogas(MotorGasoline) 103
2.6.3.2 Diesel 104
2.6.3.3 JetFuels/Kerosene 106
2.6.3.4 FuelOil 106
2.6.3.5 LiquefiedPetroleumGas(LPG) 107
2.7 Petrochemicals 107
2.7.1 Olefins:PrimeandHigherOlefins 107
2.7.2 Aromatics 109
2.7.3 Lubes 109
2.7.4 OtherProducts 110
2.8 TheFutureofPetroleum 110
References 112
(cid:2)
(cid:2)
Contents vii
PartIII AnalyticalTechniquesUtilizedinthePetroleum
Industry 121
3 PetroleumAnalysisThroughConventionalAnalytical
Techniques 123
MelissaN.DunkleandWilliamL.Winniford
3.1 IntroductiontoPetroleumAnalysis 123
3.2 BriefHistoryonPetroleumAnalysis 123
3.2.1 HowPetroleumAnalysisInfluencedDevelopmentsinGas
Chromatography 124
3.2.1.1 DetectorTechnology 125
3.2.1.2 ColumnTechnology 132
3.3 ConventionalAnalysisofPetroleum 135
3.3.1 Distillation 136
3.3.2 PIONAAnalyzer 137
3.3.3 DetailedHydrocarbonAnalysis 138
3.3.4 GC-MSAnalysisforUnknownandBiomarkerIdentification 139
3.3.4.1 Diamondoids 140
3.3.4.2 NaphthenicAcids 141
3.3.4.3 Biomarkers 142
(cid:2) (cid:2)
3.3.5 TotalPetroleumHydrocarbon(TPH)andPolycyclicAromatic
Hydrocarbon(PAH)andTheirEnvironmentalImpact 145
3.3.6 TarAnalysis 146
3.3.7 AnalysisofHeteroatomsandHeavyMetals 149
3.3.7.1 Heteroatoms 149
3.3.7.2 HeavyMetals 150
3.3.8 AdditionalAnalyticalApplicationsforPetroleum 150
References 150
4 AdvancedAnalyticsfortheEvaluationofOil,NaturalGas,
andShaleOil/Gas 161
EmmieDumont,PatSandra,KyraA.Murrell,FrankL.Dorman,
AllegraLeghissa,andKevinA.Schug
4.1 IRMSintheOilandGasIndustry 161
4.1.1 IRMS:General 161
4.1.1.1 Introduction 161
4.1.1.2 IsotopicFingerprint 162
4.1.2 IRMS:TheTechnique 164
4.1.2.1 Introduction 164
4.1.2.2 Ionization 164
4.1.2.3 MassAnalyzer 164
(cid:2)
(cid:2)
viii Contents
4.1.2.4 Detection 165
4.1.2.5 Referencing 165
4.1.2.6 BulkAnalysis 165
4.1.3 CompoundSpecificIRMS 166
4.1.3.1 Introduction 166
4.1.3.2 GC-IRMS 166
4.1.3.3 LC-IRMS 167
4.1.3.4 Two-DimensionalGC-IRMS 168
4.1.4 IRMSApplicationsintheOilandGasIndustry 169
4.1.4.1 Introduction 169
4.1.4.2 OilFingerprinting 171
4.1.4.3 AirPollution 172
4.1.4.4 DifferentiatingOilDerivedProducts 174
4.1.4.5 InherentTracersforCarbonCaptureandStorage(CCS) 174
4.1.5 ConclusionsOverUtilizationofIRMSintheOilandGas
Industry 176
4.2 AdvancedAnalyticsfortheEvaluationofOil,NaturalGas,andShale
Oil/Gas:ComprehensiveGC(GC×GC) 176
4.2.1 Background 176
4.2.2 BasicPrinciplesofGC×GC:Instrumentation 178
(cid:2) (cid:2)
4.2.3 BasicPrinciplesofGC×GC:Columns 180
4.2.4 BasicPrinciplesofGC×GC:Modulators 184
4.2.5 BasicPrinciplesofGC×GC:Detectors 186
4.2.6 BasicPrinciplesofGC×GC:DataProcessing 187
4.2.7 PetrochemicalApplications:Group-TypeAnalysis 190
4.2.8 PetrochemicalApplications:ContaminatedSoilandSediments 193
4.2.9 PetrochemicalApplications:MarineOilSpills 196
4.2.10 PetrochemicalApplications:HydraulicFracturing 199
4.2.11 ConclusionsofUtilizingGC×GCintheOilandGasIndustry 201
4.3 PetroleumandHydrocarbonAnalysisbyGasChromatography:
VacuumUltravioletSpectroscopy 202
4.3.1 IntroductiontoGC-VUV 202
4.3.2 GC-VUVDataProcessing 204
4.3.2.1 TimeIntervalDeconvolution(TID)Algorithm 206
4.3.2.2 Pseudo-absoluteQuantitation 208
4.3.3 GC-VUVApplications 210
4.3.4 GC-VUVConclusions 214
References 215
(cid:2)
(cid:2)
Contents ix
5 LiquidChromatography:ApplicationsfortheOilandGas
Industry 225
DenicevanHerwerden,BobW.J.Pirok,andPeterJ.Schoenmakers
5.1 Introduction 225
5.1.1 PetroleumIndustry 225
5.1.2 IntroductiontoLiquidChromatography 226
5.2 Group-TypeSeparations 228
5.2.1 Group-TypeSeparationsofHeavyDistillates 228
5.2.2 OtherGroup-TypeSeparations 232
5.3 Molecular-WeightDistribution 233
5.4 TargetAnalysis 236
5.4.1 PolyaromaticHydrocarbons 236
5.4.2 NaphthenicAcids 240
5.4.3 Phenols 244
5.5 LCasaPre-separationTechniqueforGCAnalysis 245
5.6 Conclusions 247
References 248
6 SupercriticalFluidsinChromatography:Applicationstothe
OilandGasIndustry 259
(cid:2) (cid:2)
DidierThiébautandRobertM.Campbell
6.1 Introduction 259
6.2 BasicsofSFC 260
6.2.1 PackedColumnSFC 262
6.2.1.1 Implementation 262
6.2.1.2 ApplicationsofPackedColumnSFC 264
6.2.2 CapillarySFC 265
6.3 SimulatedDistillation(SIMDIST) 266
6.3.1 Experimental 267
6.3.2 Results 267
6.4 Group-TypeandRelatedSeparations 270
6.4.1 HeavySamples 271
6.4.2 Additives 272
6.5 DetailedSeparations 273
6.5.1 SurfactantandAlkoxylatePolymerAnalysisbySFC 273
6.5.1.1 OpenTubularColumns 273
6.5.1.2 PackedCapillaryColumnSFCofSurfactants 274
6.5.2 PackedColumnSFCofSurfactants 275
(cid:2)
(cid:2)
x Contents
6.5.2.1 SurfactantsbySub-2μmParticlePackedColumnSFC 276
6.5.2.2 SurfactantCharacterizationbySFC/MS:Software-Assisted
DeconvolutionofCo-polymers 280
6.5.2.3 CO CloudPointPressuresofNon-ionicSurfactantsbyCapillaryand
2
PackedColumnSFC 280
6.5.2.4 CO /WaterPartitionCoefficientsbySFC 280
2
6.5.2.5 SFCofIonicSurfactants 281
6.5.3 CapillarySFCofSurfactants 281
6.5.3.1 LargeVolumeInjectioninCapillarySFC 281
6.5.3.2 SplitlessInjectioninCapillarySFC 282
6.5.4 SeparationsofPolyaromaticHydrocarbons(PAHs) 283
6.5.5 SFCinMultidimensionalSeparations 285
6.5.5.1 LC×SFC 285
6.5.5.2 FeasibilityofSFC×SFC 287
References 288
7 OnlineandInSituMeasurementsforEnvironmental
ApplicationsinOilandGas 299
EricSchmidt,J.D.Tate,WilliamL.Winniford,andMelissaN.Dunkle
7.1 Introduction 299
(cid:2) (cid:2)
7.2 CharacteristicsofOn-lineAnalyzers 300
7.2.1 ZoneClassification 300
7.2.2 SamplingSystems 301
7.2.3 Detection 302
7.3 WaterAnalysis 302
7.3.1 GeneralWaterAnalysis 302
7.3.2 Application:BenzeneinDrinkingWater 303
7.4 AirQualityandEmissionsMonitoring 304
7.4.1 Regulations 305
7.4.1.1 USAirMonitoring 305
7.4.1.2 EuropeanUnionAirMonitoring 305
7.4.2 ProtonTransferReactionMassSpectrometryforEmission
Monitoring 307
7.5 SampleConditioning 309
7.6 WellDrillingandProduction 309
7.6.1 WellLogging 310
7.6.2 Emissions 312
7.7 TexasCommissiononEnvironmentalQuality 312
7.8 FencelineMonitoring 313
7.9 PipelineandFugitiveEmissionMonitoringwithDrones 317
7.10 TypesofContinuousEmissionMonitors 317
(cid:2)
(cid:2)
Contents xi
7.10.1 NondispersiveIR(NDIR) 317
7.10.2 UVandDispersiveIR 319
7.10.3 ChemiluminescentNO /SO Analyzers 319
x x
7.10.4 TDLAnalyzers 320
7.10.5 QCLAnalyzers 321
7.11 PortableGCs 321
References 324
PartIV SpecialCasesandExamplesRelatedtothe
PetroleumIndustry 329
8 TracersforOilandGasReservoirs 331
WilliamL.WinnifordandMelissaN.Dunkle
8.1 Introduction 331
8.2 TypesofTracers 334
8.2.1 RadioactiveWaterTracers 334
8.2.2 RadioactiveGasTracers 336
8.2.3 RadioactiveMeasurementTechniques 336
8.2.4 ExampleStudiesofRadioactiveTracers 338
(cid:2) (cid:2)
8.2.5 ChemicalWaterTracers 338
8.2.6 ChemicalGasTracers 339
8.2.7 NaturallyOccurringTracers 340
8.2.7.1 Isotopes 340
8.2.7.2 Biomarkers 341
8.3 Regulations 341
References 343
9 EnvironmentalImpactofEmissionsOriginatingfromthe
PetroleumIndustry 347
MelissaN.DunkleandWilliamL.Winniford
9.1 GlobalWarming 347
9.1.1 CausesofGlobalWarming 347
9.1.2 CombattingGlobalWarming 349
9.2 EnvironmentalImpactofDieselEmissions 350
9.2.1 DieselEngine 350
9.2.2 DieselExhaust 350
9.2.3 DieselEngineModifications 351
9.2.4 DieselFuelModifications 354
9.2.4.1 LowSulfurDiesel 355
9.2.4.2 Ultra-LowSulfurDiesel 355
(cid:2)