An Introduction to Archaeological Chemistry

339 Pages·2011·10.614 MB·English

by  T. Douglas Price, James H. Burton (auth.)

An Introduction to Archaeological Chemistry
w
T. Douglas Price • James H. Burton
An Introduction to
Archaeological Chemistry
T. Douglas Price James H. Burton
Laboratory for Archaeological Chemistry Laboratory for Archaeological Chemistry
University of Wisconsin-Madison University of Wisconsin-Madison
Madison, WI Madison, WI
USA USA
[email protected] [email protected]
ISBN978-1-4419-6375-8 (hardcover) e-ISBN978-1-4419-6376-5
ISBN978-1-4614-3302-6 (softcover)
DOI10.1007/978-1-4419-6376-5
SpringerNewYorkDordrechtHeidelbergLondon
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Preface
Thirty some years ago, one of us (Doug) was excavating Stone Age sites in the
Netherlands, trying to learn how small hunting groups survived there 8,000 years
ago. All that remained of their former campsites were small stone tools and tiny
pieces of charcoal from their fireplaces. Questions like what did they eat, how often
did they move camp, or even how many people lived there, were almost impossible
to answer from the scant materials that survived. A frustration grew – these were
important archaeological questions.
I remembered some research that a fellow student had been doing during my
years at the University of Michigan – measuring the elemental composition of
human bones to learn about diet. Maybe this was a way to find some answers.
I began similar investigations in my job at the University of Wisconsin-Madison.
By 1987, that research had provided some interesting results and the National
Science Foundation gave us funding for the creation of the Laboratory for
Archaeological Chemistry and its first major scientific instrument. Equally impor-
tant, the NSF money paid for a new position for another scientist. Jim Burton joined
the lab as associate director.
Jim was trained as a geochemist, Doug as an archaeologist. This combination of
education, background, and knowledge has been a powerful and effective mix for
our investigations of the human past through archaeological chemistry. We have
worked together for more than 20 years now, analyzing stones, bones, pottery, soils,
and other fascinating things in the lab. We have collected deer legs in Wisconsin,
snails and chicken bones in Mexico, horse teeth in China, and semi-frozen, oily
birds from Alaska, in addition to prehistoric artifacts and human bones from a
number of different places on earth. There are many, many stories.
For a number of years we have together taught a course in archaeological chem-
istry. We have written this book because we believe there is a critical need for more
archaeological scientists. The major discoveries in archaeology in the future will
come more often from the laboratory than from the field. For this reason, it is essen-
tial that the discipline have well-trained scientists capable of conducting a variety
of different kinds of instrumental analyses in the laboratory. That means that more
college courses in the subject are needed and that good textbooks are essential. We
hope to entice students to the field of archaeological science by making the subject
more accessible and interesting. Too many students are turned off by scientific
v
vi Preface
courses because they find them boring and/or incomprehensible. That situation
needs to change and good textbooks can help.
This book is an introduction to a rchaeological chemistry , the application of
chemical and physical methods to the study of archaeological materials. Many of
the most interesting discoveries being made in archaeology today are coming from
the laboratory. Archaeological chemists study a wide variety of materials from the
past – including ceramics, bone, stone, soils, dyes, and organic residues. The meth-
ods and techniques for these studies are described in the following pages.
Archaeologists are often found in the laboratory and there are many kinds of
labs. There are laboratories for studying animal remains, laboratories for plant
materials, and laboratories for cleaning and spreading out artifacts for study. There
are other laboratories where archaeologists and physical scientists investigate the
chemical properties of materials from the past. These are wet-labs with chemical
hoods, balances, and a variety of scientific instrumentation.
Not all kinds of laboratory archaeology are covered in our book. We do not write
about the analysis of animal bones or plant remains. We don’t talk much about dat-
ing techniques, although radiocarbon measurement is mentioned. There is also a
case study presented involving the authentication of the Shroud of Turin discussed
in Chap. 5. We do not spend a lot of time on ancient DNA studies, although such
genetic work will likely be a major part of archaeological discoveries in the future.
Genetics in archaeology is the subject for a different kind of book. Our concern is
with archaeological chemistry, the study of the elements, isotopes, and molecules
that make up the material remains from the past.
This book is intended to introduce both professional archaeologists and students
to the principles and practices of archaeological chemistry. We hope this book will
be a guide to this exciting branch of archaeology. We have worked hard to keep the
text straightforward and clear and not too technical. Chemical tables and mathemat-
ical formulas are mostly confined to the appendix.
We have designed the book so that the reader is introduced to the instrumental
study of archaeological materials in steps. We begin with vocabulary and concepts,
followed by a short history of archaeological chemistry to place such studies in
perspective. We provide a brief survey of laboratories that do such studies. An
important chapter considers what archaeologists want to know about the past.
These questions guide research in archaeological chemistry.
Chapter 3 on archaeological materials outlines the kinds of objects and materials
that are discovered in excavations and used in the study of the past. A subsequent
chapter deals with the methods of analysis, the kinds of studies that are usually
done (magnification, elemental analysis, isotopic analysis, organic analysis, min-
eral/compound analysis) and the kinds of instruments that are used. These chapters
include illustrations and examples aimed at nonscientists – to make clear how the
characteristics of materials, the framework of methods, and the capabilities of
instruments together can tell us about the past.
A series of chapters then describe and document what archaeological chemistry
can do. A brief introduction to these last chapters outlines the strengths of archaeo-
logical chemistry. We then consider the kinds of archaeological questions that
Preface vii
laboratory science can best address and we discuss the principles and goals of
archaeological chemistry. The chapters then move to the heart of the matter. What
can archaeological chemistry tell us about the past? These chapters offer descrip-
tion and case studies of these major areas of investigation: identification, authenti-
cation, technology and function, environment, provenience, human activity, and
diet. Case studies involve stone tools, pottery, archaeological soils, bone, human
burials, and organic residues. We will consider some of the more interesting archae-
ological investigations in recent years including the Getty kouros, the first king of
the Maya capital of Copan, the spread of maize agriculture, house floors at the first
town in Turkey, and a variety of others. These case studies document the detective
story that is archaeology and archaeological chemistry.
The concluding chapter provides a detailed case study which involves a number
of different techniques, instruments, and materials. Ötzi the Iceman from the Italian
Alps is probably the most studied archaeological discovery of our time. We review
some of the investigations that have been conducted to demonstrate how archaeo-
logical chemistry can tell us much more about the past. This last chapter also
includes a look ahead at the future of the field of archaeological chemistry, what’s
new and where things may be going in the coming years.
It is our hope that by the end of the book you will have a good grasp of how
archaeological chemistry is done, some of the things that have been learned, and a
desire to know more about such things.
Practical features of the book appear throughout. New words and phrases are
defined on the page where they appear and combined in the glossary at the back of
this book. We have tried to have informative and attractive artwork in the book.
Illustrations are an essential part of understanding the use of science in archaeol-
ogy. We carefully selected the drawings and photos to help in explaining concepts,
methods, and applications. Tables of information have been added where needed
to condense textual explanation and to summarize specific details. The back of the
book contains additional technical information about archaeological chemistry,
lab protocols, tables of weights and measures, the glossary, references, and a
subject index.
There are many people involved in many ways to make a book – our lab, our
students, our families, our editors, our reviewers. Theresa Kraus initiated the idea
for this volume and has been our senior editor. Kate Chabalko, editorial assistant at
Springer, has been our direct contact and done a great job in helping us get the
manuscript ready for publication. We would also like to thank the outside reviewers
who offered their time and knowledge to greatly improve this book.
Lots of friends and colleagues have helped us with information, photos, illustra-
tions, and permissions. The list is long and includes the following: Stanley
Ambrose, Søren Andersen, Eleni Asouti, Luis Barba, Brian Beard, Larry Benson,
Elisabetta Boaretto, Gina Boedeker, Jane Buikstra, Patterson Clark, Andrea Cucina,
Jelmer Eerkens, Adrian A. Evans, Karin Frei, Paul Fullagar, Brian Hayden, Naama
Goren-Inbar, Kurt Gron, Björn Hjulstrom, David Hodell, Brian Hayden, Larry
Kimball, Corina Knipper, Jason Krantz , Z.C. Jing , Kelly Knudson, Petter
Lawenius, Lars Larsson, Randy Law, David Meiggs, William Middleton, Nicky
viii Preface
Milner, Corrie Noir, Tamsin O’Connell, Dolores Piperno, Marianne Rasmussen,
Susan Reslewic, Erika Ribechini, Henrik Schilling, Steve Shackley, Robert Sharer,
James Stoltman, Vera Tiesler, and Christine White. No doubt we failed to include
one or two individuals in this list. Please accept our thanks as well. Many students
have contributed to our thoughts about teaching archaeological chemistry and to the
success of our laboratory. Some of the names that come to mind include Joe Ezzo,
Bill Middleton, Corina Knipper, Kelly Knudson, David Meiggs, and Carolyn
Freiwald. Heather Walder helped produce the artwork for the book and Stephanie
Jung worked on obtaining permissions for the use of illustrations. The University
of Wisconsin has given the laboratory a good home for many years, along with sub-
stantial financial support. The National Science Foundation has provided continuous
funding since the lab was created. This volume is one way of saying thank you.
Madison, WI T. Douglas Price
James H. Burton
Contents
1 Archaeological Chemistry ........................................................................ 1
1.1 Archaeological Chemistry ................................................................. 2
1.2 Terms and Concepts ........................................................................... 4
1.2.1 Matter ..................................................................................... 5
1.2.2 Organic Matter ....................................................................... 6
1.2.3 The Electromagnetic Spectrum .............................................. 9
1.2.4 Measurement .......................................................................... 11
1.2.5 Accuracy, Precision, and Sensitivity ...................................... 12
1.2.6 Samples, Aliquots, and Specimens ........................................ 13
1.2.7 Data, Lab Records, and Archives ........................................... 15
1.3 A Brief History of Archaeological Chemistry ................................... 15
1.4 Laboratories ....................................................................................... 19
1.4.1 A Tour of the Laboratory for Archaeological Chemistry ...... 20
1.5 Summary ............................................................................................ 23
Suggested Readings .................................................................................... 24
2 What Archaeologists Want To Know ...................................................... 25
2.1 Archaeological Cultures ..................................................................... 26
2.2 Time and Space .................................................................................. 27
2.3 Environment ....................................................................................... 28
2.4 Technology ......................................................................................... 29
2.5 Economy ............................................................................................ 30
2.5.1 Food ....................................................................................... 30
2.5.2 Shelter .................................................................................... 31
2.5.3 Raw Material and Production ................................................ 31
2.5.4 Exchange ................................................................................ 32
2.6 Organization ....................................................................................... 34
2.6.1 Social Organization ................................................................ 34
2.6.2 Political Organization ............................................................ 34
2.6.3 Settlement Pattern .................................................................. 36
2.7 Ideology ............................................................................................. 38
2.8 Summary ............................................................................................ 39
Suggested Readings .................................................................................... 39
ix
x Contents
3 Archaeological Materials .......................................................................... 41
3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................ 41
3.2 Archaeological Materials ................................................................... 41
3.3 Rock ................................................................................................... 42
3.4 Pottery ................................................................................................ 47
3.5 Bone ................................................................................................... 49
3.6 Sediment and Soil .............................................................................. 51
3.7 Metals ................................................................................................. 55
3.8 Other Materials .................................................................................. 58
3.8.1 Glass ....................................................................................... 59
3.8.2 Pigments and Dyes ................................................................. 62
3.8.3 Concretes, Mortars, and Plasters ............................................ 66
3.8.4 Shell ....................................................................................... 68
3.9 Summary ............................................................................................ 70
Suggested Readings .................................................................................... 71
4 Methods of Analysis .................................................................................. 73
4.1 Magnification ..................................................................................... 74
4.1.1 Optical Microscopes .............................................................. 75
4.1.2 Scanning Electron Microscope .............................................. 76
4.2 Elemental Analysis ............................................................................ 78
4.2.1 Spectroscopy .......................................................................... 81
4.2.2 Inductively Coupled Plasma-Optical Emission
Spectrometer .......................................................................... 84
4.2.3 X-Ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy ........................................ 86
4.2.4 CN Analyzer .......................................................................... 88
4.2.5 Neutron Activation Analysis .................................................. 89
4.3 Isotopic Analyses ............................................................................... 90
4.3.1 Oxygen Isotopes ..................................................................... 91
4.3.2 Carbon and Nitrogen Isotopes ............................................... 92
4.3.3 Strontium Isotopes ................................................................. 94
4.3.4 Mass Spectrometers ............................................................... 98
4.4 Organic Analysis ................................................................................ 102
4.4.1 Methods of Organic Analysis ................................................ 109
4.4.2 Gas/Liquid Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry ................ 109
4.5 Mineral and Inorganic Compounds.................................................... 115
4.5.1 Petrography ............................................................................ 116
4.5.2 X-Ray Diffraction .................................................................. 119
4.5.3 IR Spectroscopy ..................................................................... 120
4.6 Summary ............................................................................................ 122
Suggested Readings .................................................................................... 126
5 Identifi cation and Authentication ............................................................ 127
5.1 What Archaeological Chemistry Can Do .......................................... 127
5.2 Identification and Authentication....................................................... 128