An Introduction to Aquatic Toxicology

253 Pages·2014·11.86 MB·English

by  Mikko Nikinmaa

AN INTRODUCTION
TO AQUATIC TOXICOLOGY
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AN INTRODUCTION
TO AQUATIC
TOXICOLOGY
M N
ikko ikiNMaa
Professor of Zoology,
Department of Biology, Laboratory of Animal Physiology,
University of Turku, Turku, Finland
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Contents

Preface ix
Acknowledgments xi
1. Introduction: What is Aquatic 5. The Most Important Experimental
Toxicology? Designs and Organisms in Aquatic
Toxicology
1.1 The History of Aquatic Toxicology 1
1.2 The Main Present and Future Challenges 4 5.1 Model Organisms Used 54
1.3 What is Measured 5 5.2 Micro- and Mesocosms 54
Relevant Literature and Cited References 16 5.3 Ecosystem Manipulations 60
5.4 Biomonitoring 61
2. What Causes Aquatic Contamination? Relevant Literature and Cited References 62
2.1 Introduction 20 6. Factors Affecting the Bioavailability
2.2 Metals, Metalloids, and Organometallic
of Chemicals
Compounds 23
2.3 Other Inorganic Compounds, Including F actors 6.1 Introduction 66
Causing Eutrophication 29 6.2 Pharmacological Bioavailability 66
2.4 Organic Compounds 29 6.3 Environmental Bioavailability 68
2.5 Nanomaterials 35 Relevant Literature and Cited References 71
2.6 Radiation 36
2.7 Genetic Modification 38
7. Chemical Uptake by Organisms
Relevant Literature and Cited References 38
7.1 Introduction 73
3. Principles of Water Purification 7.2 The Uptake of Ionic (Hydrophilic)
Compounds 76
3.1 Principles of Wastewater Treatment 41 7.3 The Uptake of Lipophilic
3.2 Disinfection Steps for Generating Household Compounds 78
Water 44 Relevant Literature and Cited References 79
3.3 Sludge Treatment 45
Relevant Literature and Cited References 46
8. Chemical Distribution
in Organisms
4. Sources and Transport of Chemicals
in Aquatic Systems 8.1 Introduction: Distribution of Chemicals in
Organisms 81
4.1 The Major Sources of Pollutants 48 8.2 Storage Sites of Chemicals in Organisms 82
4.2 Transport of Pollutants in the Environment 50 8.3 Cellular Distribution of Chemicals 83
Relevant Literature and Cited References 51 Relevant Literature and Cited References 84
v
vi CONTENTS
9. Detoxification 13. Interactions between Chemicals
9.1 Biotransformation of Organic Compounds 88 13.1 Lack of Interacting Effects
9.2 Detoxification by Forming Non-Harmful (Additive Toxicity) 157
Complexes 94 13.2 Agonism (potentiation, synergism) 159
9.3 Detoxification by Compartmentalization 97 13.3 Antagonism 162
Relevant Literature and Cited 13.4 Has Potentiation or Inhibition of Toxicity by
References 97 Chemical Interactions been Demonstrated in
Natural Environments? 163
Relevant Literature and Cited
10. Excretion of Compounds from
References 163
Organisms
14. Acute and Chronic Toxicity
10.1 Introduction 100
10.2 Cellular Excretion 101
14.1 I ntroduction 165
10.3 Excretion from Gills 102
14.2 D ifferentiating between General Stress
10.4 Excretion from the Kidney and Other
Responses and Specific Acute Responses to
Excretory Organs 106
Pollutants 166
10.5 Excretion in Bile Via the Intestine 107
14.3 T ime Courses of Toxicant Responses 168
10.6 Excretion from Multicellular Plants
14.4 W hat Signifies a Chronic Toxicant
(Including Algae) 109
Response 170
Relevant Literature and
Relevant Literature and Cited References 171
Cited References 109
15. Interactions Between Natural
11. Effects on Organisms
Environmental Factors and Toxicity
11.1 ‘Omics in Aquatic Toxicology—
15.1 T emperature 174
Ecotoxicogenomics 112
15.2 O xygen 176
11.2 Genotoxicity 121
15.3 S alinity 179
11.3 Oxidative Stress 124
15.4 O ther Abiotic Stresses 180
11.4 Effects on Reproduction 130
15.5 C ompetition and Predation 181
11.5 Neurotoxicity 133
Relevant Literature and Cited References 183
11.6 Effects on Energy Metabolism 134
11.7 Membrane Effects 136
11.8 Apoptosis and Necrosis 138 16. Effects of Chemicals on Aquatic
11.9 Immunotoxicology 139 Populations
11.10 Effects on Development 141
11.11 Teratogenesis and 16.1 I ntroduction 186
Carcinogenesis 142 16.2 E pidemiology 188
11.12 Behavioral Effects 143 16.3 D emographic Effects 190
Relevant Literature and 16.4 P opulation Genetics 191
Cited References 144 Relevant Literature and
Cited References 194
12. Bioindicators and Biomarkers
17. Effects of Chemicals on Aquatic
12.1 Bioindicators 147 Communities and Ecosystems
12.2 Biomarkers 149
Relevant Literature and Cited 17.1 I ntroduction 198
References 154 17.2 C ommunity Ecotoxicology 199
CONTENTS vii
17.3 Ecosystem Ecotoxicology 202 18.4 T oxicokinetic Modeling 215
Relevant Literature and 18.5 Q SAR 215
Cited References 204 18.6 M odeling the Properties of Water Affecting
Toxicity (of Metals) 216
18. Modeling Toxicity Relevant Literature and Cited References 217
18.1 Introduction 208 Glossary 221
18.2 Risk Assessment 209 Index 233
18.3 Models with Lethality as an End Point 212
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Preface
Any effects of contaminants on ecosystems in biotic interactions within or between
must be caused by their direct effects on one species. Further, while experimental studies
or more organisms in the ecosystem. Thus, are mainly retrospective, modeling makes
changes in the function (= physiology) of aquatic toxicological predictions possible.
an organism or organisms will be behind Consequently, aquatic toxicology is truly
any ecotoxicological effects. Consequently, integrative, and I hope that I am able to give
understanding the normal physiology of this message to readers of the book. Since the
organisms is at the center of all toxicology. book is introductory, I have tried to find a
Effluent discharges (and thus the measure- balance between making it possible for any
ments of chemical concentrations) are of reader to understand the book and including
no toxicological significance if they cause new concepts to make it interesting reading,
no effects on any organism. Further, a con- even for aquatic toxicology experts.
taminant may cause effects on the genome Because my background is in animal
of an organism without phenotypic effects. physiology, the book is biased towards the
In such a case, the effect on the genome is animal kingdom. However, I hope that it
not toxicological. Even though this premise becomes clear to the reader that effects on
emphasizes the role of functional changes in prokaryotes, fungi, plants, and algae are
individual organisms, it is pointed out that equally important components of aquatic
interactions between organisms, and between toxicology. Which group of organisms
natural environmental and toxicant-induced receives most emphasis depends mainly
changes, occur whenever toxicant responses on the interests of the writer. Regardless of
of organisms in an ecosystem are considered. the group that receives the most attention,
For example, it is emphasized that many of the basic principles of aquatic toxicology
the effects of toxicants in an ecosystem are are the same. However, as my approach to
indirect: the actual toxic effect is on a species toxicology is biological, the work may be
other than the one that is seen to respond. difficult for any reader without previous
The response takes place because of changes biological knowledge.
ix