An Introduction to Applied and Environmental Geophysics

712 Pages·2011·39.13 MB·English

by  John M. Reynolds

RED BOX RULES ARE FOR PROOF STAGE ONLY. DELETE BEFORE FINAL PRINTING.
Second Edition
Second Edition Reynolds
An Introduction
An Introduction
to Applied and Environmental
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John M. Reynolds, t
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An Introduction to Applied and Environmental Geophysics, 2nd Edition,describes the rapidly developing r
field of near-surface geophysics. The book covers a range of applications including mineral, hydrocarbon ou
Geophysics
and groundwater exploration, and emphasises the use of geophysics in civil engineering and in
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environmental investigations. Following on from the international popularity of the first edition, this new,
revised, and much expanded edition contains additional case histories, and descriptions of geophysical mt
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techniques not previously included in such textbooks.
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The level of mathematics and physics is deliberately kept to a minimum but is described qualitatively
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within the text. Relevant mathematical expressions are separated into boxes to supplement the text. n
The book is profusely illustrated with many figures, photographs and line drawings, many never
tt John M. Reynolds
previously published. Key source literature is provided in an extensive reference section; a list of web
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addresses for key organisations is also given in an appendix as a valuable additional resource.
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Covers new techniques such as Magnetic Resonance Sounding, Controlled- Source EM,
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shear-wave seismic refraction, and airborne gravity and EM techniques e
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Now includes radioactivity surveying and more discussions of down-hole geophysical methods; o
hydrographic and Sub-Bottom Profiling surveying; and UneXploded Ordnance detection l
pi
Expanded to include more forensic, archaeological, glaciological, agricultural and e
bio-geophysical applications h
d
Includes more information on physio-chemical properties of geological, engineering and y

environmental materials s
Takes a fully global approach i
c
Companion website with additional resources available at
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www.wiley.com/go/reynolds/introduction2e
Accessible core textbook for undergraduates as well as an ideal reference for industry professionals
The second edition is ideal for students wanting a broad introduction to the subject and is also designed
for practising civil and geotechnical engineers, geologists, archaeologists and environmental scientists
Second
who need an overview of modern geophysical methods relevant to their discipline. While the first edition
was the first textbook to provide such a comprehensive coverage of environmental geophysics, the Edition
second edition is even more far ranging in terms of techniques, applications and case histories.
Cover design by Dan Jubb
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An Introduction to Applied and
Environmental Geophysics
i
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An Introduction to Applied and
Environmental Geophysics
2nd Edition
John M. Reynolds
ReynoldsInternationalLtd
A John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Publication
iii
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Thiseditionfirstpublished2011(cid:1)C 2011byJohnWiley&Sons,Ltd.
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LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData
Reynolds,JohnM.
Anintroductiontoappliedandenvironmentalgeophysics/JohnM.Reynolds.–2nded.
p.cm.
Includesindex.
Summary:“Thebookcoversarangeofapplicationsincludingmineralandhydrocarbonexplorationbutthegreatestemphasisisontheuseofgeophysicsin
civilengineering,andinenvironmentalandgroundwaterinvestigations”–Providedbypublisher.
ISBN978-0-471-48535-3(hardback)978-0-471-485360(paperback)
1.Geophysics–Technique. 2.Seismology–Technique. I.Title.
QC808.5.R492011
624.1(cid:2)51–dc22
2010047246
AcataloguerecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary.
Thisbookispublishedinthefollowingelectronicformat:ePDF9780470975015,ePub9780470975442
Setin9.5/12ptMinionbyAptaraInc.,NewDelhi,India.
FirstImpression2011
iv
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Contents
Preface to the 2nd Edition xi 2.5.3 Latitude 35
2.5.4 Free-aircorrection 35
Acknowledgements xiii 2.5.5 Bouguercorrection 36
2.5.6 Terraincorrection 38
1 Introduction 1 2.5.7 Buildingcorrections 41
2.5.8 Eu¨tvu¨scorrection 41
1.1 Whatare‘applied’and
2.5.9 Isostaticcorrection 44
‘environmental’geophysics? 1
2.5.10 Miscellaneousfactors 45
1.2 Geophysicalmethods 3
2.5.11 Bougueranomaly 45
1.3 Matchinggeophysicalmethodsto
2.6 Interpretationmethods 45
applications 5
2.6.1 Regionalsandresiduals 46
1.4 Planningageophysicalsurvey 5
2.6.2 Anomaliesduetodifferent
1.4.1 Generalphilosophy 5
geometricforms 47
1.4.2 Planningstrategy 5
2.6.3 Depthdeterminations 51
1.4.3 Surveyconstraints 7
2.6.4 Massdetermination 52
1.5 Geophysicalsurveydesign 9
2.6.5 Secondderivatives 53
1.5.1 Targetidentification 9
2.6.6 Sedimentarybasinor
1.5.2 Optimumline
granitepluton? 55
configurationandsurvey
2.7 Applicationsandcasehistories 59
dimensions 9
2.7.1 Mineralexploration 59
1.5.3 Selectionofstation
2.7.2 Engineeringapplications 59
intervals 11
2.7.3 Archaeological
1.5.4 Noise 13
investigations 66
1.5.5 Positionfixing 15
2.7.4 Hydrogeological
1.5.6 Dataanalysis 16
applications 67
2 Gravity Methods 19 2.7.5 Volcanichazards 71
2.1 Introduction 19 2.7.6 Glaciologicalapplications 78
2.2 Physicalbasis 19
3 Geomagnetic Methods 83
2.2.1 Theory 19
3.1 Introduction 83
2.2.2 Gravityunits 20
3.2 Basicconceptsandunitsof
2.2.3 Variationofgravitywith
geomagnetism 83
latitude 20
3.2.1 Fluxdensity,fieldstrength
2.2.4 Geologicalfactors
andpermeability 83
affectingdensity 22
3.2.2 Susceptibility 84
2.3 Measurementofgravity 24
3.2.3 Intensityofmagnetisation 84
2.3.1 Absolutegravity 24
3.2.4 Inducedandremanent
2.3.2 Relativegravity 25
magnetisation 85
2.4 Gravitymeters 26
3.2.5 Diamagnetism,
2.4.1 Stable(static)gravimeters 27
paramagnetism,andferri-
2.4.2 Unstable(astatic)
andferro-magnetism 85
gravimeters 27
3.3 Magneticpropertiesofrocks 87
2.4.3 Marineandairborne
3.3.1 Susceptibilityofrocksand
gravitysystems 31
minerals 87
2.5 Correctionstogravityobservations 34
3.3.2 Remanentmagnetisation
2.5.1 Instrumentaldrift 34
andKu¨nigsbergerratios 88
2.5.2 Tides 34
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CONTENTS
3.4 TheEarth’smagneticfield 89 4.3.1 Reflectionand
3.4.1 ComponentsoftheEarth’s transmissionofnormally
magneticfield 89 incidentrays 149
3.4.2 Timevariablefield 94 4.3.2 Reflectionandrefraction
3.5 Magneticinstruments 95 ofobliquelyincidentrays 150
3.5.1 Torsionandbalance 4.3.3 Criticalrefraction 151
magnetometers 95 4.3.4 Diffractions 151
3.5.2 Fluxgatemagnetometers 95 4.4 Lossofseismicenergy 152
3.5.3 Resonancemagnetometers 97 4.4.1 Sphericaldivergenceor
3.5.4 Cryogenic(SQUID) geometricalspreading 152
magnetometers 99 4.4.2 Intrinsicattenuation 153
3.5.5 Gradiometers 99 4.4.3 Scattering 154
3.5.6 Airbornemagnetometer 4.5 Seismicenergysources 154
systems 100 4.5.1 Impactdevices 155
3.6 Magneticsurveying 100 4.5.2 Impulsivesources 157
3.6.1 Fieldsurveyprocedures 100 4.5.3 Explosivesources 159
3.6.2 Noiseandcorrections 101 4.5.4 Non-explosivesources 159
3.6.3 Datareduction 103 4.5.5 High-resolution
3.7 Qualitativeinterpretation 103 waterbornesources 162
3.7.1 Profiles 105 4.5.6 Vibrators 163
3.7.2 Patternanalysison 4.5.7 Animals 166
aeromagneticmaps 105 4.6 Detectionandrecordingofseismic
3.8 Quantitativeinterpretation 107 waves 169
3.8.1 Anomaliesduetodifferent 4.6.1 Geophonesand
geometricforms 110 accelerometers 170
3.8.2 Simpledepth 4.6.2 Hydrophonesand
determinations 112 streamers 171
3.8.3 ReductiontothePole 4.6.3 Seismographs 177
(RTP) 115
5 Seismic Refraction Surveying 179
3.8.4 Modellingintwoand
5.1 Introduction 179
threedimensions 115
5.2 Generalprinciplesofrefraction
3.8.5 Depthdeterminationsand
surveying 179
Eulerdeconvolution 118
5.2.1 Criticalrefraction 179
3.9 Applicationsandcasehistories 123
5.2.2 Fieldsurveyarrangements 181
3.9.1 Regionalaeromagnetic
5.3 Geometryofrefractedraypaths 182
investigations 123
5.3.1 Planarinterfaces 182
3.9.2 Mineralexploration 125
5.3.2 Irregular(non-planar)
3.9.3 Detectionofunderground
interfaces 185
pipes 126
5.4 Interpretationalmethods 186
3.9.4 Detectionofburied
5.4.1 Phantoming 187
containers 127
5.4.2 Hagedoornplus-minus
3.9.5 Landfillinvestigations 128
method 188
3.9.6 Acidtarlagoonsurvey 133
5.4.3 Generalisedreciprocal
3.9.7 UneXplodedOrdnance
method(GRM) 190
(UXO) 136
5.4.4 Hidden-layerproblem 191
4 Applied Seismology: Introduction
5.4.5 Effectsofcontinuous
and Principles 143
velocitychange 192
4.1 Introduction 143 5.4.6 Seismicrefraction
4.2 Seismicwaves 144 software 193
4.2.1 Stressandstrain 144 5.5 Applicationsandcasehistories 193
4.2.2 Typesofseismicwaves 145 5.5.1 Rockheaddetermination
4.2.3 Seismicwavevelocities 147 foraproposedwaste
4.3 Raypathgeometryinlayered disposalsite 193
ground 149 5.5.2 Locationofaburieddoline 197
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5.5.3 Assessmentofrockquality 199 6.6.4 Geophysicaldiffraction
5.5.4 Landfillinvestigations 201 tomographyin
5.5.5 Acid-tarlagoons 203 palaeontology 283
5.5.6 Staticcorrections 205 6.6.5 Forensicseismology 286
5.5.7 Locatingburiedminers 207
7 Electrical Resistivity Methods 289
5.6 Shearwavemethods 208
7.1 Introduction 289
5.6.1 Groundstiffnessprofiling 208
7.2 Basicprinciples 289
5.6.2 MultichannelAnalysisof
7.2.1 Trueresistivity 289
ShearWaves(MASW) 211
7.2.2 Currentflowina
5.6.3 Earthquakehazardstudies 215
homogeneousearth 292
6 Seismic Reflection Surveying 217
7.3 Electrodeconfigurationsand
6.1 Introduction 217 geometricfactors 293
6.2 Reflectionsurveys 217 7.3.1 Generalcase 293
6.2.1 Generalconsiderations 217 7.3.2 Electrodeconfigurations 294
6.2.2 Generalreflection 7.3.3 Mediawithcontrasting
principles 218 resistivities 298
6.2.3 Two-dimensionalsurvey 7.4 Modesofdeployment 301
methods 219 7.4.1 Verticalelectrical
6.2.4 Three-dimensionalsurveys 221 sounding(VES) 301
6.2.5 Verticalseismicprofiling 7.4.2 Automatedarrayscanning 303
(VSP) 224 7.4.3 Electricalresistivity
6.2.6 Cross-holeseismology: tomography(ERT) 306
tomographicimaging 225 7.4.4 Constantseparation
6.3 Reflectiondataprocessing 228 traversing(CST) 307
6.3.1 Preprocessing 229 7.4.5 Fieldproblems 308
6.3.2 Staticcorrections(field 7.5 Interpretationmethods 311
statics) 230 7.5.1 Qualitativeapproach 311
6.3.3 Convolutionand 7.5.2 Mastercurves 313
deconvolution 233 7.5.3 Curvematchingby
6.3.4 Dynamiccorrections, computer 314
velocityanalysesand 7.5.4 Equivalenceand
stacking 236 suppression 317
6.3.5 Filtering 241 7.5.5 Inversionand
6.3.6 Migration 243 deconvolution 318
6.4 Correlatingseismicdatawith 7.5.6 Modellingin2Dand3D 321
boreholelogsandcones 246 7.6 ERTapplicationsandcasehistories 326
6.4.1 Sonicanddensitylogs, 7.6.1 Engineeringsite
andsyntheticseismograms 246 investigations 326
6.4.2 Correlationwithcone 7.6.2 Groundwaterandlandfill
penetrationtesting 247 surveys 330
6.5 Interpretation 250 7.6.3 Mineralexploration 333
6.5.1 Verticalandhorizontal 7.6.4 Glaciologicalapplications 333
resolution 250 7.7 Mise-a`-la-masse(MALM)method 336
6.5.2 Identificationofprimary 7.7.1 Mineralexploration 338
andsecondaryevents 252 7.7.2 Civilengineeringpiletesting 341
6.5.3 Potentialinterpretational 7.7.3 Studyoftreeroots 344
pitfalls 256 7.7.4 Groundwaterflow 344
6.6 Applications 257 7.8 Leakdetectionthroughartificial
6.6.1 High-resolutionseismic membranes 346
profilingonland 257
8 Spontaneous (Self) Potential Methods 349
6.6.2 Seismicreflectionsurveys
8.1 Introduction 349
forearthquakeprediction
8.2 Occurrenceofself-potentials 349
studies 265
8.3 Originofself-potentials 349
6.6.3 High-resolutionseismic
8.3.1 Electrokineticpotentials 350
profilingoverwater 266
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8.3.2 Electrochemicalpotentials 351 10.1.3 TypesofEMsystems 404
8.3.3 Mineralpotentials 352 10.2 PrinciplesofEMsurveying 407
8.4 Measurementofself-potentials 353 10.2.1 Electromagneticwaves 407
8.5 CorrectionstoSPdata 354 10.2.2 Polarisation 410
8.6 Interpretationofself-potential 10.2.3 Depthofpenetrationof
anomalies 354 EMradiation 411
8.6.1 Qualitativeinterpretation 354 10.3 AirborneEMsurveying 411
8.6.2 Quantitative 10.3.1 Background 411
interpretation 355 10.3.2 Frequency-domainEM
8.7 Applicationsandcasehistories 357 (FEM) 412
8.7.1 Geothermalexploration 357 10.3.3 Time-domainEM(TEM) 414
8.7.2 Mineralexploration 359 10.3.4 AirborneVLF-EM 418
8.7.3 Hydrogeology 361 10.4 SeaborneEMsurveying 418
8.7.4 Landfillsandcontaminant 10.4.1 Background 418
plumes 363 10.4.2 DetailsofmarineEM
8.7.5 Leakdetection 364 systems 421
8.7.6 Mappingmineshafts 370 10.5 BoreholeEMsurveying 426
8.8 Electrokinetic(EK)surveying 371
11 Electromagnetic Methods: Systems
9 Induced Polarisation 373 and Applications 431
9.1 Introduction 373 11.1 Introduction 431
9.2 Originofinducedpolarisation 11.2 Continuous-wave(CW)systems 431
effects 374 11.2.1 Tilt-anglemethods 431
9.2.1 Grain(electrode) 11.2.2 Fixed-sourcesystems
polarisation 374 (Sundberg,Turam) 432
9.2.2 Membrane(electrolytic) 11.2.3 Moving-sourcesystems 433
polarisation 375 11.2.4 Interpretationmethods 437
9.2.3 Macroscopicprocesses 375 11.2.5 Applicationsandcase
9.2.4 Ionicprocesses 376 histories 441
9.3 Measurementofinduced 11.3 Pulse-transient(TEM)or
polarisation 376 time-domain(TDEM)EMsystems 467
9.3.1 Time-domain 11.3.1 TDEM/TEMsurveys 467
measurements 376 11.3.2 Dataprocessingand
9.3.2 Frequency-domain interpretationofTEM
measurements 377 surveys 468
9.3.3 SpectralIPandcomplex 11.3.3 Applicationsandcase
resistivity 379 histories 470
9.3.4 Noisereductionand
12 Electromagnetic Methods: Systems
electromagneticcoupling 381
and Applications II 495
9.3.5 FormsofdisplayofIPdata 382
12.1 Very-low-frequency(VLF)methods 495
9.3.6 Inversionandfitting
12.1.1 Introduction 495
dispersionspectra 383
12.1.2 Principlesofoperation 495
9.4 Applicationsandcasehistories 384
12.1.3 Effectoftopographyon
9.4.1 Basemetalexploration 384
VLFobservations 498
9.4.2 Hydrocarbonexploration 389
12.1.4 Filteringand
9.4.3 Geothermalsurveys 390
interpretationofVLFdata 498
9.4.4 Groundwaterinvestigations 391
12.1.5 Applicationsandcase
9.4.5 Environmental
histories 499
applications 392
12.2 Thetelluricmethod 502
9.4.6 Geologicalinvestigations 398
12.2.1 Principlesofoperation 502
10 Electromagnetic Methods: Introduction
12.2.2 Fieldmeasurements 503
and Principles 403
12.3 Themagnetotelluric(MT)method 505
10.1 Introduction 403 12.3.1 Principlesofoperation 505
10.1.1 Background 403 12.3.2 Fieldmeasurements 505
10.1.2 Applications 404 12.3.3 Interpretationmethods 507