An Inquiry into Meaning and Truth

347 Pages·1940·14.913 MB·English

by  Bertrand Russell

ANI NQUI RY
INT O
MEANINAGN D
TRUT H
LECTURES
THE WILLIAM JAMES
FOR
1940
DELIVEREADT H ARVARD
UNIVERSI TY
1
BY BERTRAND RUSSELL
THE ANALYSIS OMFA TTER
HUMAN SOCIETYI N .ETHICSA ND POLITICS
THE IMPACT OF SCIENCOEN SOCIETY
NEW HOPES FOR A.C HANGING WORLD
AUTHORITYA ND THE INDIVIDUAL
HUMAN KNOWLEDGE:n ·s SCOPE A?\ i,)L IMITS
HISTORYO F WESTERN PHILOSO}:HY
THE PRINCIPLEOSF MATHEMATICS
INTRODUCTIONT O MATHEMATICALP HILOSOPHY
THE ANALYSISO F MIND
OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE EXTERNAL WORLD
AN OUTLINE OF PHILOSOPHY
THE PHILOSOPHYO F LEIBNIZ
ANI NQUIRYI NTO MEANING AND TRUTH
LOGIC AND KNOWLEDGE
THE PROBLEMOSF PHILOSOPHY
PRINCIPIMAA THEMATICA
(wiAt.hN . W hitehead)
UNPOPULAR BSSAYS
PORTRAITFS ROM MEMORY
POWER
IN PRAISEO F IDLENESS
THE CONQUESTO F HAPPINESS
SCEPTICAL'E SSAYS
.MYSTICISMA ND LOGIC
.T HE SCIENTIFIOCUT LOOK
MARRIAGE AND MORALS
EDUCATIONA ND THE SOCIALO RDER
ON EDUCATION
1814-1914
FREEDOM AND ORGANIZA.TION,
PRINCIPLEOSF SOCIAL RECONSTRUCTION
ROADS TO FREEDOM
THE PR.ACl'ICE AND THEORY OFB OLSHEVISM
(G.org1A lim fit Unwin)
SATAN IN THE SUBURBS
NIGHTMARESO F EMINENT PERSONS
(JolmLan. )
AN INQUIRY
INTO
MEANING AND
·TRUTH
BY
.
t�f S
BERTRANDR S ELL
'
..
.. ...
,
LONDON .
GEORGE ALLEN AND UNWIN LTD
FIRSTP UBLHIESDI N1 940
SECONIDMR PESSION
1942
THIDR IMRPESISON
1948
FOUTRHI MPRESOSNI
1951
FIFTIHM RPESOSNI
1956
This hook isc opyright untktrl Bue rm
ConvenAptioanr.ft r oamn fya iderali ng
fortlte purposes ofp rivastteu rdyu,e arcli.,
criticism orr eviewp,e rmiutntktret dl u
as
CopyrighAtc 1t9 zz,n op ortmiaoyhen r e•
producehytl an y procus wwriittltUJeunt
.·
pe "ssion.s lEnqUJuihuryeUm a de tlu
to
puhli.rhars.
PRINTED IN GRBAT BRITAIN
in za -PoFionutr nieTry p•
.B Y BISHOPAN D SONSL IMITED
EDINBURGH
·-
PREFACE
Thisb ookh asd evelogpreadd uaolvleyar perioofdy ears,
culminaitinna g s erieso fa cademiacp pointmeInnt1 9s.38 I
treaptaerdt t hosefu bjienca t couorfls eec tuorn"e Lsa nguage
andF acta"tt hUe niverosfiO txyf orTdh.e slee ctufroersm ed
theb asfi�srs emincaoru rsaetts h eU niverosfiC thyi cagion
19389-- ari·dt hUen iverosifCt ayl ifoarnitaL osA ngeliens
19)9-40.
Thed iscussaittho en twso seminadrisd m ucht o
�
widemny concepotifot nh per oblems iannvdto old veds h
thee mphawshiisc Iho riginpalllayco endt hlinguiseti c aspe.c ts
.o ft hseu bjeIch atv.te o e xprecsosl lae cotibvlei gattioto hno se,.
botPhr ofesasnodpr usp iwlhso,b, y d etailferdi enCrdiltiyc is�,
(I
helpedh opein) t hea voidaonfec rer oarnsdf allaMcoirees.
especiaatCl �lcayg ow,h erteh seminare was ofteant tended by
ProfesCsaonl.raspa ndM orriasn,dw herseo moef t hger aduate
studesnhtso wegdr epahti losoapbhiilcti htdeyi ,s cuswseiroen·s
modelosf f ruitafurlg umentactiovoep eraMrti.on N.o rman
Dalkewyh,o a ttenbdoetdsh e minhasar ss,i nrceea tdh weh ole
booki nm anuscrainpdIt a,m gr eatly indteobh tiemfd.o rh is
careful ands timulating Fcirniatildcilusyrm,i. n g the summer of
194I0 p,r epartehde sWei lliJaamm eLse cturpaerst frloym
acCumulmaatteedr ainadpl a,r tfrloym a r e-considoeftr haet ion
wholseu bje·c t.
Asw ilble e videtnott h er eadIe amr,, asr egarmdesth od,
morien s ympathy witthh leo gical"pt9hsaiwntii vtaihns yt so ther
existing sIcd hioffofrelor.m th em;.howeivnae trt,ac hmionrge
importantcheat nh edyo t ot he:w orko fB erkealnedyH ume.
Theb oorke sufrlotmsa na ttemtpoct o mbiang ee neoruatll ook
akin to Humwei'ttshh mee thotdhsah ta ve groowunot f m odern
logic.
7.
CONTNETS
di APTER PA.GB
Preface
7
Introduction
11
I.W haitas o\Vrd ?
II.Sentenceasn,d SoyfSn pteeacxh,
Parts
IIIS.entDeensccersEi xbpienrgi ences
IV.ThOeb ject-Language
V. Logical Words
VI.ProNpaemre s
VIJ.. EgoPcaernttirciucl ars 108
VIIIP.ercepatniKdon no wledge 116
IX.EpistemPorleomgiiscsale s 131
X. BParsoipco sitions 13
7
XI.Factual 150
Premisses
� II.A nA naloyfPs riosb Clpenmcse Pmrionpgo s1i6t6ions
·- .. --
XIII. STihgen iofifcaS necnet eAn.cG eesn:e ral.
B.P sycholCo.Sg yinctaalc.t ic1a7l0
XIV.L anguaEgxep ression 204
as
·XV.W haSte nte"nIcnesd icaten 214
XVI.T.r uatnhFd a lsePhroeoldi,m inary 22.6
Discussion
XVIIT.r uatnhEd x perience 236
XVIIGIe.n eBrealli efs 247
XIX.E xtensainoAdnt aolmiitciyt y 259
xx.T hLea owf E xclMuiddeddl e 247
XXL TruatnhVd e rification 289
XXIIS.i gniafincVdae nrcei fication 3o6
XXI IIW.a rraAnssetretdi bility 318
XXIVA.n alysis 327
xxv..L angaunaMdge et aphysics 341
Index 349
9
H*
INTRODUCTION
Thep resent woirnkt enidases ad n i nvestigoaftc ieornt ain
problecmosn cerneimnpgi rikcnaolw ledAgseo .p posteodt radi­
tiontahle oorfyk nowledtgheme,e thoadd optdeidff ecrhsi efly
int hiem portaantctea cthoel di nguicsotnisci der..a tpIir oonpso-s e
toc onsildaenrg uaignre e lattioto wno m aipnr oblewmhsi,c h, in
prelimiannadnr oytv erpyr ectie�rem msa,y bset ataesfd o llows:
I.W hati sm eanbty "empierviicdaelnf coert het rutohfa
proposition"?
IIW.hatc anb ei nferredt hfefr aocmt tthhearsteo m etiitsnes
sucehv idence?
Herea,s u sualilnpy h ilosotphhefiy r,s dti fficulitsty o s ee
thatth ep roblem is Idfyi offiucs ualytt o.a persounn trained
inp hiloso"pHhoyw,d oy ouk nowI have tewyoe s?h"e or
shew ilrle ply, "aW shialtql uye st!iI o cJ)a ns eey ouh ave."
Iti sn ott ob es uppostehda wth,e no uri nquiirsfiy n ishweed ,
shahlalv aer rivaetad n ythirnagd icdailflfy efrreonmtt h is
un-
,p hilo.opshicpaols itiWohna.tw ilhla veh appened will be that
we shahlalv ec omet os ee a compsltircuacttweuhdre erw ee
thougehvte rytwhaisnsg i mplteh,aw te s hahlalv bee comaew are
oft hpee numborfau ncertaisnutryr ountdh�seni gt uatwihoincsh
inspinroe d oubtt,h awte shalfiln d doumbotr ef requently
justifitehda wne supposaendd,t haetv ent hem ostp lausible
premiswsielshl a ves hownth emselcvaepsa bolfey ielding
un­
plausible conclnuestri eosnusil.stt o T hseu bsatrittiuctuel ate
hesitaftoirio nna rticcuelrattaeiW nhteyt.h etrh irse suhlatsa ny
valuiesa q uestwihoinc Ihs hallc onnosti der.
As soona sw e takeo urtw o questisoenrsi oudsilfyf,i culties
crowudp onu s.T aket hep hrase "emepviirdiecnfac<le> t rh e
trutohfa propositTihoinps" h.r adseem andtsh awte should
definteh weo rd"se mpiri"ceavli"d,e n"cter"u,t" hp"r,o position",
unlewsesc oncluadfete,ex ra minatthiaootnu ,rq uesthiaosbn e en
wrongwloyr ded.
11
AN INQ.UIRY INTO MEANING AND TRUTH
A
Let buesg iwni t"hp ropositpiroonp"o.s iistiso onm ething
whicmha ybe saiidna nyl angua"gSeo:c raitsme osr tala"n d
"Socraesttem orteelx;p'r etshsse a mper oposiItinoa n g.i ven
languiatmg aey b es aiidnv ariwayso:us thdei fferbeentcwee en
"Cae·sw aarsk illoentd h Ied eosf M archa"n d" iwta so nt he
Ideosf M arcthh aCta eswaars ki lledi"sm ererlhye torIitc al.
ist hupso ssifbolrte w of omrs owfo rdtso " havteh esa me
meaninWge" m.a ya,t l eafsotr the momean "tp,r od­efine
positiaos"n a"l l the wsheincthhea nvcteesh es ammee aning
ass omgei vseenn tence".
We mustn ow·d efine" sentenacned"" h avitnhges ame
meaninIgg"n.o rtihnlega tftoetrrh meo menwth,a itsa s entence?
Itm ayb ea s ingwloer do,r m,o rues ualaln yu,m be·row fo rds
putt ogetahcecro rdtiotn hgel awosf s yntabxu;tw hatd is­
tinguisihtie sts h aitte xpressosmeest hoifnt gh en aturoefa n
asserat dieonni,ana li,m pera�tid vees,i orrea q ,u estiWohna.t
ism orer emarkaabbolueat s entefrnocmeo ,u rp oinotfv iew,
ist hat can weu nderswtahnadt exiptr eifss weesk nowt he
meanionfgi tsse vewroarld asn d theo frs uylnetasOx u.r in­
vestigmautsittoh ne rebfeogriewn i tahn e xaimnatifiorns otf
wordasn,dt heonfs yntax.
Befoernet eruipnogann y detaialfew , generreamla raksts o
thnea tuorfoe u rpr oblmeamyh elupst ok nowwh aitsr elevant.
Ourp robliesom n ei nt hteh eoorfky n owleWdhgea.ti st he
theoorfyk nowledEgvee?r ythtihnawgte k nowo,r t hinwek.
knowb,e lontgoss o msep ecsicaile nwchea·;tt ,heins,l efovte r
fotrh eoorfky n owledge?
Theraer te wod iffereinntq uiries, botahn de aicmhp ortant,
havianr gi gthott hnea m"et heoorfky n owledIgnae n"y.g iven
discusistii soe na,s y falltio n tcoo nfusi.tohnrso ufgahi ltuor e
determtiown hei cohft htweo inquitrhideesi scusissiin otne nded
tob elonIg w.i ltlh erefaottr heeo, u tsseatya, fe w wordisn
explanoaftib oont h.
Int hfier sfto romf t heorkyn oowfl ewdega ec,c ethpets cien­
tifiacc couonftt h weo rlndo,ta sc ertaintrluye b,u ta sth eb est
atp resaevnati lTahbelw eo.r ladsp, r esebnyts ecdi enccoen,ta i'n.s
12
INTRODTUICON
.
a phenomencoanl led "knowtihnego"or,fy k naonwdl edigne ,
itfisr sfto rmh,a st oc onsiwdhearst o rotfp henomenthoinis s .
Viewefrdo mt he outistii sdt,eo b, e giwni tha, c haracteristic
ofl ivionrgg aniswmhsi,ci hs ( broasdpleya kiinngc)r easingly
displasa ytehdoe r ganbiescmo mmeosr ceo mplexi.sc lIettah ra t_
knowiinsga r elatioofn tohreg anitsosm o metheilnsgoe r.t o
ap arotfi tseSltiflta.lk inagn o utside observoefrv 'ise w,p oint
wem ayd istingpueirsche patiwvaree nefrsosm h abit-knowledge.
Percepatwiavree niesas ssp ecies of "sewnhsiicitihsvn iotty ",
confinteodl ivionrgg anibsumtsi ,sa lsdoi splayesdc iebnyt ific
instrumenatns,t,do s omdee grbeyee verything. Sensitciovni­ty
sisitnbs e haViinntg h,pe r eseonfca se t imuolfua cs e rtkaiinnd ,
ina wayi nw hicthhe animoarlt hindgo enso tb ehavieni ts
absence.
A cath aasc haractbeerhiasvtiico tuhrep riens eonfca ed og;
thism akeuss s ayt hatth ec a"tp erceitvheeds o"g B.u ta gal­
vanomehtaesar c haractbeerhiasvtiicio nut rh ep reseonfca en
electrciucr reanntdy, e tw ed on ots ayt haitt" perceitvhees "
elecctruircr eTnhted. i fferebnectwee etnh tweo casheasts o d o
wit"hh abit-knowledge".
An inanim atet hinsgo, l onga si tpsh ysical constitution
remaiunnsc hanged, maktehsse a mael waryess ptohnsesa em et o
stimuAlnu asn.i moanlt ,h ceo ntrwahrey·n,p resenrteepde atedly
witahs timutlouw sh icfrho,m t hfier sittm, a kesso mer esponse,
.w ilglr aduaalllttyeh rcharactee r oft hree spounnstieil tr eaches
ap oionft( alte atsetm porary) stabilpiotiy}fasn. t b eWehne n this
reachtehdae,n imhaalacquireds a "habiEtv"e.rh ya bit involves
whatfr,o ma b ehaviopuoriinostftv iewm,i ght caosub netl ief
ina g enelraawlo, re ve(ni ans ensaesk) n owleodfg e saul cahw ,
ift heb eli4eafp petnosb et rueF.o re xampal ed,o gt hahta s
learntt os iutp � d begf ofro omdi ghbtes aibdya b ehaviourist
to beliegveen etrlhaaelw " :t hsem elolff oopdl ubse ggiinsg
follobwyef do odt;h sem eolflf ooadl oniesn ot".
Whati casl le"dl earning bye xperiewnhcieci"hsc, h aracteristic
ofl iving origstha ensi asmmtesh ,i asn gt haec quisoifth iaobni ts.
A dogl earnbsy e xperitehnachteu mabne incagns o pedno or.s ,
13
AN INQUIRYI NTOM EANINAGN DT RUTH
andt herefiofhr iems,a stiesrp resewnhte nh ew anttsog oo ut,
barkrso unhdi mi nstoefas dc ratcahtti hndego or".S igndse"p end,
asa rule, huapboinlt esa rbnyte xperieHnicsme a.s tevro'isc e
ist,oa d oga,s igonf t hme asteWre. m ays ayt haAt i sa " sign"
ofB ifi tp romotbeesh aviourB wtohualtpd r omotbeu,tt hat
hans oa ppropriattoAe anleosnsIe tm. u sbte a dmittheodw,e ve·r ,
thasto mes ignasr en otd ependuepnotn e xperifeonrct eh eir
efficacayn:i marless potnodc ertsamienl ilnsa mannearp pro­
priatteh eot boj ects etmhiest mteilnalgns d,s ometicmaends o
soe vewnh ent hehya vnee veerx perietnhcoeeb dj eicntq su estion.
Thep recise doeffia n" istiigionsdn, i ,ffi cublott,oh n t hiasc count,
andb ecaut�hee riesn os atisfacdteofirnyi toifo" na ppropriate"
behaviourt.h egB eunte rcahla racotfwe hra ti sm eanitsfa irly
cleaarn,d wiitlb le s eetnh alta nguiasga es pecoifet sh eg enus
''sign".
Ass oona st heb ehavioofua rn o rganiissim n fluebnyc ed
signist, pioss sitbolt er acteh eb eginnionftg hse d istinction
betwe"esnu bjecatnidvc ec"o bjecatnidav les'bo>e ,t we"eknn ow­
ledgaen"d" erroSru"b.j ectAi viesals yi,go nfB foarn o rgani.s m
0 if0 behavienst hep reseonfc ei An a mannearp propriate
toB .O bjectiAv eilsay s ,i gonf B ifi,nfa ctA> i sa ccompanied
orf ollobwyeB d. W henevAe ri s subjeacs tiigovnfeB l fyo trh e
organi0s,mw e mays ayt hastp,e akibnegh aviouri0st ically,
"believtehseg" e nerparlo posi"tAi iosna lwayacsc ompanied
orf ollobwyeB d" ,b utt hibse liiesof n l"yt ruiefA, i,s o bjectively
as igonf B .A �imacanl sb ed eceibvyem di rroorrscs e ntSsu.c h
1
instanmcaeksei tc letahra ftr,o mo urp resepnoti notfv iewl,
thed istinc"tsiuobnjse ctive-oabnjd"e kcntoiwvlee"d ge-error"
'·
begianta veerayr slt.ayg ien a nimbaelh aviBooutrkh.n owledge
ande rrora,t t hisst agaer,eo bservarbellea tibeotwnese n the
behaviooufrt heor ganiasnmdt hfaec tosf t hee nvironment.
Withiintsl imitattihoenoosrf,yk nowledogfte h aboe ves ort
isl egitiamnadit mep ortBaunttt .h eiresa nothkeirn odf t heory
ofk nowledwghei cgho edse epaenrdh asI,t hinmkuch, greater
importance.
Whent hebe haviouorbissetr tvheesd oingofsa nimalasn,d
14